Internal
`
`Combustion Engine
`FLmdamentals
`
`”-
`-HH
`
`
`
`John B. Heywood
`
`FORD Ex. 1125, page 1
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` >
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`INTERNAL COMBUSTION
`
`ENGINE FUNDAMENTALS
`
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` McGraw-Hill Series in Mechanical Engineering
`
`Jack P. Holman, Southern Methodist University
`Consulting Editor
`
`
`
`Anderson: Modern Compressible Flaw: With Hisiorical Perspective
`Dieter: Engineering Design: A Marerials and Processing Approach
`
`Eckert and Drake: Analysis of Heat and Mass Transfer
`Heywood: Internal Combustion Engine Fundamentals
`
`Hinze: Turbulence, 2/e
`
`Hutton: Applied Mechanical Vibrations
`
`Juvinall: Engineering Considerations ofStress, Strain, and Strength.
`
`Kane and Levinson: Dynamics .' Theory and Applications
`
`Rays and Crawford: Convective Heat and Mass Transfer
`
`Martin: Kinematics and Dynamics of Machines
`
`Phelan: Dynamics of Machinery
`
`Phelan: Fundamentals of Mechanical Design. 3fe
`
`Pierce: Acoustics : An Introduction to Its Physical Principles and Applications
`
`Raven: Automatic Control Engineering, 4/e
`
`Rosenberg and Karnopp: Introduction to Physics
`
`Schlichting: Boundary-Layer Theory, 7/2
`
`Shames: Mechanics of Fluids, 21's
`
`Shigley: Kinematic Analysis of Mechanisms, 2fe
`
`Shigley and Mitchell: Mechanical Engineering Design. 4/9
`
`Shigley and Uicker: Theory of Machines and Mechanisms
`
`Stoecker and Jones: Refrigeration and Air Conditioning, Z/e
`
`Vanderplaats: Numerical Optimization Techniques for Engineering Design:
`With Applications
`
`
`
`
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`

`
`
`
`
`INTERNAL
`
`COMBUSTION
`
`ENGINE
`
`FUNDAMENTALS
`
`John B. Heywood
`Professor of Mechanical Engineering
`Director, Sloan Automotive Laboratory
`Massachuseus Instfmte of Technology
`
`active
`uach
`
`wgth
`
`d Applications
`
`ng Design:
`
`McGraw-Hill, Inc.
`NewYork St. Louis San Francisco Auckland Bogorfi
`Caracas Lisbon London Madrid Mexico Milan
`Montreal New Delhi Paris SanJuan Singapore
`Sydney Tokyo Toronto
`
`1
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`

`INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE FUNDAMENTALS
`
`This book was set in Times Roman.
`The editors were Anne Duffy and John M. Morriss; the designer
`was Joan E. O‘Connor; the production supervisor was
`Denise L. Puryear. New drawings were done by ANCO.
`Project Supervision was done by Santype International Ltd.
`R. R. Donnelley & Sons Company was primer and binder.
`
`See acknowledgements on page xxir
`
`Copyright © 1988 by McGraw-Hill, Inc. All rights reserved.
`Printed in the United States of America. Except as permitted under the
`United States Copyright Act of I976. no part of this publication may be
`reproduced or distributed in any form orday any means, or stored in a data
`base or retrieval system, without the prior written permission
`of the publisher.
`
`7890 DOCDOC 93
`
`ISBN Cl-Cl?-C|EE|=37-X
`
`Library of Congress Camloging-in-Publication Data
`Heywood, John B.
`
`Internal combustion engine fundamentals.
`(McGraw-Hill series in mechanical engineering)
`Includes index.
`Bib'ioml’hy‘ P‘
`1. Internal combustion engines.
`117551145
`I988
`621.43
`
`I. Title.
`37-15251
`
`II. Series.
`
`1|
`
`Dr. John B‘ Heywood
`the Massachusetts Inst
`doctoral year of resear
`Electricny Generating
`hydrodynamlc power 5
`is Professor of Mechz
`Automotive Laborator
`Division of the Mech
`Energy Program Direi
`to the MIT Sports Car
`Professor Heywoo
`modynamics, combust
`decades, his research a
`fuels requirements of
`been on computer mr
`sions of spark-ignitio
`experiments to develo
`technology assessmen
`mobile fuel utilization
`the automotive and pi
`His extensive rese
`
`Army, Department
`National Science Fou
`
`petroleum companies
`
`
`
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`
`
`ABOUT THE AUTHOR
`
`Dr. John B. Heywood received the PhD. degree in mechanical engineering from
`the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1965. Following an additional post-
`doctoral year of research at MIT, he worked as a research officer at the Central
`Electricity Generating Board’s Research Laboratory in England on magneto-
`hydrodynamic power generation. In 1968 he joined the faculty at MIT where he
`is Professor of Mechanical Engineering. At MIT he is Director of the Sloan
`Automotive Laboratory. He is currently Head of the Fluid and Thermal Science
`Division of the Mechanical Engineering Department, and the Transportation
`Energy Program Director in the MIT Energy Laboratory. He is faculty advisor
`to the MIT Sports Car Club.
`Professor Heywood’s teaching and research interests lie in the areas of ther-
`modynamics, combustion, energy, power, and pfopulsion. During the past two
`decades, his research activities have centered on the operating characteristics and
`fuels requirements of automotive and aircraft engines. A major emphasis has
`been on computer models which predict the performance, efficiency, and emis-
`sions of spark-ignition, diesel, and gas turbine engines, and in carrying out
`experiments to develop and validate these models. He is also actively involved in
`technology assessments and policy studies related to automotive engines, auto-
`mobile fuel utilization, and the control of air pollution. He consults frequently in
`the automotive and petroleum industries, and for the US. Government.
`His extensive research in the field of engines has been supported by the US.
`Army, Department of Energy, Environmental Protection Agency, NASA,
`National Science Foundation, automobile and diesel engine manufacturers, and
`petroleum companies. He has presented or published over a hundred papers on
`
`V
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`vi
`
`amour THE AUTHOR
`
`his research in technical conferences and journals. He has co-authored two pre-
`vious books: Open-Cycle MHD Power Generation published by Pergamon Press
`in 1969 and The Automobile and the Regulation of Its Impact on the Environment
`published by University of Oklahoma Press in 1975.
`He is a member of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers, an associ-
`ate fellow oi the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, a fellow of
`the British Institution of Mechanical Engineers, and in 1982 was elected a Fellow
`of the US. Society of Automotive Engineers for his technical contributions to
`automotive engineering. He is a member of the editorial boards of the journals
`Progress in Energy and Combustion Science and the International Journal of
`Vehicle Design.
`9
`His research publications on internal combustion engines, power generation,
`and gas turbine combustion have won numerous awards. He was awarded the
`Ayreton Premium in 1969 by the British Institution of Electrical Engineers. Pro-
`fessor Heywood received a Ralph R. Teetor Award as an outstanding young
`engineering educator from the Society of Automotive Engineers in 1971. He has
`twice been the recipient of an SAE Arch T. ColweIl Merit Award for an outstand-
`ing technical publication (1973 and 1981). He received SAE's Horning Memorial
`Award for the best paper on engines and fuels in 1984. In 1984 he received the
`Sc.D. degree from Cambridge University for his published contributions to
`engineering research. He was selected as the 1986 American Society of Mechani-
`cal Engineers Freeman Scholar for a major review of “Fluid Motion within the
`Cylinder of Internal Combustion Engines.”
`
`
`
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`
`
`as eo-authored two pre-
`thed by Pergamon Press
`zpact on the Environment
`
`cal Engineers. an associ-
`Astronautics, a fellow of
`’82 was elected a Fellow
`:hnical contributions to
`
`l boards of the journals
`rm‘ernational Journal of
`
`gines, power generation,
`is. He was awarded the
`lectrical Engineers Pro-
`an outstanding young
`[gineers in 1971. He has
`Award for an outstand-
`
`iE’s Homing Memorial
`In 1984 he received the
`lished contributions to
`
`:an Society of Mechani-
`iluid Motion within the
`
`THIS BOOK IS DEDICATED TO MY FATHER,
`Harold Heywood:
`
`I havefollowed many of the paths he took.
`
`vii
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`
`
`CONTENTS
`
`Preface
`
`Commonly Used Symbols, Subscripts, and
`Abbreviations
`
`Chapter 1
`1.1
`1.2
`1.3
`1.4
`1.5
`1.6
`1.7
`1.8
`1.9
`
`Chapter 2
`2.1
`2.2
`2.3
`2.4
`25
`2.6
`2.7
`2.8
`2.9
`
`Engine Types and Their Operation
`Introduction and Historical Perspective
`Engine Classifications
`Engine Operating Cycles
`Engine Components
`Spark-Ignition Engine Operation
`Examples of Spark-Ignition Engines
`Compression-Ignition Engine Operation
`Examples of Diesel Engines
`Stratified-Charge Engines
`
`Engine Design and Operating Parameters
`Important Engine Characteristics
`Geometrical Properties of Reciprocating Engines
`Brake Torque and Power
`Indicated Work Per Cycle
`Mechanical Efficiency
`Road-Load Power
`Mean Efl‘ective Pressure
`Specific Fuel Consumption and Efficiency
`Air/Fuel and Fuel/Air Ratios
`
`xvii
`
`xxiii
`
`1
`1
`7
`9
`12
`15
`19
`25
`31
`37
`
`42
`42
`43
`45
`46
`48
`49
`50
`51
`53
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`X
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`CONTENTS
`
`2.10 Volumetric Efficiency
`2.11
`Engine Specific Weight and Specific Volume
`2.12
`Correction Factors for Power and Volumetric Ell‘iciency
`2.13
`Specific Emissions and Emissions Index
`2.14
`Relationships between Performance Parameters
`2.15
`Engine Design and Performance Data
`
`Chapter 3
`3.1
`3.2
`3.3
`3.4
`3.5
`
`3.6
`
`3.7
`
`Chapter 4
`4. 1
`4.2
`4.3
`4.4
`4.5
`
`4.6
`4.7
`
`4.8
`4.9
`
`Thermochemistry of Fuel-Air Mixtures
`Characterization of Flames
`Ideal Gas Model
`Composition of Air and Fuels
`Combustion Stoiehiometry
`The First Law of Thermodynamics and Combustion
`3.5.1 Energy and Enthalpy Balances
`3.5.2 Enthalpies of Formation
`3.5.3 Heating Values
`3.5.4 Adiabatic Combustion Processes
`3.5.5 Combustion Efficiency of an Internal Combustion Engine
`The Second Law of Thermodynamics Applied to Combustion
`3.6.1 Entropy
`3.6.2 Maximum Work from an Internal Combustion
`Engine and Efficiency
`Chemically Reacting Gas Mixtures
`3.7.! Chemical Equilibrium
`3.7.2 Chemical Reaction Rates
`
`Properties of Working Fluids
`Introduction
`Unburned Mixture Composition
`Gas Property Relationships
`A Simple Analytic Ideal Gas Model
`Thermodynamic Charts
`4.5.1 Unburned Mixture Charts
`4.5.2 Burned Mixture Charts
`4.5.3 Relation between Unburned and Burned
`Mixture Charts
`Tables of Properties and Composition
`Computer Routines for Property and Composition Calculations
`4.7.1 Unburned Mixtures
`4.7.2 Burned Mixtures
`Transport Properties
`Exhaust Gas Composition
`4.9.1
`Species Concentration Data
`4.9.2 Equivalence Ratio Determination from Exhaust
`Gas Constituents
`4.9.3 Effects of Fuel/Air Ratio Nonunil‘ormity
`4.9.4 Combustion lnelliciency
`
`53
`54
`54
`56
`56
`57
`
`62
`62
`
`68
`72
`72
`76
`78
`80
`81
`83
`83
`
`83
`85
`86
`92
`
`100
`100
`102
`107
`109
`112
`112
`116
`
`123
`127
`130
`130
`135
`141
`145
`145
`
`148
`152
`154
`
`Chapter 5
`5.1
`'5.2
`5.3
`5.4
`
`5.5
`
`5.6
`5.7
`
`5.8
`
`Chapter 6
`6.1
`6.2
`
`6.3
`
`6.4
`6.5
`6.6
`
`6.7
`6.8
`
`Chapter 7
`
`7.1
`7.2
`
`Ideal Mt
`lntroductio
`Ideal Mode
`Thennodyr
`Cycle Anal;
`Constant
`5.4.1 Con
`5.4.2 Lim:
`5.4.3 Cyel
`Fuel-Air C
`5.5.1 SI E
`5.5.2 Cl E
`5.5.3 Rest
`Overexpan
`Availability
`5.7.1 Ava
`5.7.2 Enti
`5.7.3 Ava
`5.7.4 Efi'e
`Compariso
`
`Gas Exc
`Inlet and E
`Volumetric
`6.2.1 Que
`6.2.2 Cor
`6.2.3 Var
`Flow Thrc
`6.3.1 P0;
`63.2 Flo
`Residual C
`Exhaust C
`Scavengin.
`6.6.1 Tw
`6.6.2
`Sea
`6.6.3 A01
`Flow Thrn
`Superchai
`6.8.1 Mt
`6.8.2 Ba
`6.8.3 Cc
`6.8.4 Tu
`6.8.5 W
`
`SI Eng
`Phen01
`
`Spark-lg
`Carburet
`
`
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`
`
`'ic Efficiency
`
`ters
`
`xturcs
`
`ibustion
`
`Combustion Engine
`d to Combustion
`
`mbustion
`
`ed
`
`sition Calculations
`
`1 Exhaust
`
`53
`54
`54
`56
`56
`57
`
`62
`62
`
`68
`72
`72
`76
`78
`80
`81
`83
`83
`
`83
`85
`36
`92
`
`100
`100
`102
`107
`109
`112
`112
`116
`
`123
`127
`I30
`130
`135
`141
`145
`145
`
`148
`152
`154
`
`CONTENTS
`
`xi
`
`Chapter 5
`5.1
`5.2
`5.3
`5.4
`
`5.5
`
`5.6
`5.7
`
`5.8
`
`Chapter 6
`6.1
`6.2
`
`6.3
`
`6.4
`6.5
`6.6
`
`6.7
`6.8
`
`Ideal Models of Engine Cycles
`Introduction
`Ideal Models of Engine Processes
`Thermodynamic Relations for Engine Processes
`Cycle Analysis with Ideal Gas Working Fluid with 0,, and c1,
`Constant
`5.4.1 Constant-Volume Cycle
`5.4.2 Limited- and Constant-Pressure Cycles
`5.4.3 Cycle Comparison
`Fuel—Air Cycle Analysis
`5.5.1
`SI Engine Cycle Simulation
`5.5.2 CI Engine Cycle Simulation
`5.5.3 Results of Cycle Calculations
`Overexpanded Engine Cycles
`Availability Analysis of Engine Processes
`5.7.1 Availability Relationships
`5.7.2 Entropy Changes in Ideal Cycles
`5.7.3 Availability Analysis of Ideal Cycles
`5.7.4 Efi‘ect of Equivalence Ratio
`Comparison with Real Engine Cycles
`
`Gas Exchange Processes
`Inlet and Exhaust Processes in the Four-Stroke Cycle
`Volumetric Elliciency
`6.2.1 Quasi-Static Effects
`6.2.2 Combined Quasi-Static and Dynamic Effects
`6.2.3 Variation with Speed, and Valve Area, Lift, and Timing
`Flow Through Valves
`6.3.1 Poppet Valve Geometry and Timing
`6.3.2 Flow Rate and Discharge Coefficients
`Residual Gas Fraction
`Exhaust Gas Flow Rate and Temperature Variation
`Scavenging in Two-Stroke Cycle Engines
`6.6.1 Two-Stroke Engine Configurations
`6.6.2 Scavenging Parameters and Models
`6.6.3 Actual Scavenging Processes
`Flow Through Ports
`Supercharging and Turbocharging
`6.8.1 Methods of Power Boosting
`6.8.2 Basic Relationships
`6.8.3 Compressors
`6.8.4 Turbines
`6.8.5 Wave-Compression Devices
`
`Chapter 7
`
`SI Engine Fuel Metering and Manifold
`Phenomena
`
`7.1
`7.2
`
`Spark-Ignition Engine Mixture Requirements
`Carburetors
`
`161
`161
`162
`164
`
`169
`169
`172
`173
`177
`178
`180
`181
`183
`186
`186
`188
`189
`192
`193
`
`205
`206
`209
`209
`212
`216
`220
`220
`225
`230
`231
`235
`235
`237
`240
`245
`248
`248
`249
`255
`263
`270
`
`279
`
`279
`282
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`
`
`xii
`
`CONTENTS
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`7.3
`
`7.4
`7.5
`7.6
`
`Chapter 8
`8.1
`8.2
`
`8.3
`
`8.4
`8.5
`8.6
`8.7
`
`7.2.1 Carburetor Fundamentals
`
`7.2.2 Modern Carburetor Design
`Fuel—Injection Systems
`7.3.1 Multipoint Port Injection
`7.3.2
`Single—Point Throttle-Body Injection
`Feedback Systems
`Flow Past Throttle Plate
`Flow in Intake Manifolds
`7.6.1 Design Requirements
`7.6.2 Air-Flow Phenomena
`7.6.3 Fuel-Flow Phenomena
`
`Charge Motion within the Cylinder
`Intake Jet Flow
`Mean Velocity and Turbulence Characteristics
`8.2.1 Definitions
`8.2.2 Application to Engine Velocity Data
`Swirl
`Swirl Measurement
`8.3.1
`8.3.2 Swirl Generation during Induction
`8.3.3 Swirl Modification within the Cylinder
`Squish
`Prechamber Engine Flows
`Crevice Flows and Blowby
`Flows Generated by Piston-Cylinder Wall Interaction
`
`Chapter 9
`9.1
`9.2
`
`Combustion in Spark-Ignition Engines
`Essential Features of Process
`Thermodynamic Analysis of SI Engine Combustion
`9.2.1 Burned and Unburned Mixture States
`
`9.2.2 Analysis 01‘ Cylinder Pressure Data
`9.2.3 Combustion Process Characterization
`Flame Structure and Speed
`9.3.1 Experimental Observations
`9.3.2 Flame Structure
`9.3.3 Laminar Burning Speeds
`9.3.4 Flame Propagation Relations
`Cyclic Variations in Combustion, Partial Burning, and Misfire
`9.4.1 Observations and Definitions '
`9.4.2 Causes of Cycle-by-Cycle and Cylinder-to-Cylinder
`
`Variations
`9.4.3 Partial Burning, Misfire, and Engine Stability
`Spark Ignition
`
`9.5.1
`Ignition Fundamentals
`9.5.2 Conventional Ignition Systems
`9.5.3 Alternative Ignition Approaches
`
`Abnormal Combustion: Knock and Surface Ignition
`9.6.1 Description of Phenomena
`
`
`9.3
`
`9.4
`
`9.5
`
`9.6
`
`282
`285
`294
`294
`299
`301
`304
`
`308
`
`314
`
`326
`326
`330
`330
`336
`342
`343
`345
`349
`353
`357
`360
`365
`
`371
`371
`376
`376
`383
`389
`390
`390
`395
`402
`
`413
`413
`
`419
`424
`427
`427
`437
`443
`450
`450
`
`9.6.2
`9.6.3
`
`10.3
`
`10.4
`
`10.5
`
`Chapter 10 Corr
`10.1
`Essen
`10.2
`Types
`10.2.1
`10.2.2
`102.3
`Phem
`Coml
`10.3.1
`10.3.2
`10.3.3
`Anal}
`10.4.1
`10.4.2
`10.4.3
`Fuel
`10.5.1
`10.5.:
`10.5.:
`10.5.1
`10.5.:
`10.5.1
`Ignit
`10.6.
`10.6.:
`10.6.
`10.6..
`10.6.
`10.6.
`Mixi
`10.7.
`10.7.
`10.7
`
`10.6
`
`10.7
`
`Chapter 11
`11.1
`11.2
`
`11.3
`11.4
`
`P01
`Nat
`Nitr
`11.2
`11.2
`11.2
`11.2
`Car
`Un1
`ll.t
`11.t
`
`
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`
`
`CONTENTS
`
`xiii
`
`282
`285
`294
`294
`299
`301
`304
`308
`308
`309
`3 14
`
`326
`326
`330
`330
`336
`342
`343
`345
`349
`353
`357
`360
`365
`
`371
`371
`376
`376
`383
`389
`390
`390
`395
`402
`406
`413
`413
`
`4 l 9
`424
`427
`427
`437
`443
`450
`450
`
`der
`
`ties
`
`er
`
`interaction
`
`Jgines
`
`bustion
`S
`
`rning, and Misfire
`
`:r-to-Cylinder
`
`itability
`
`ignition
`
`9.6.2 Knock Fundamentals
`9.6.3 Fuel Factors
`
`10.3
`
`10.4
`
`10.5
`
`Chapter 10 Combustion in Compression-1gnition Engines
`10.1
`Essential Features of Process
`10.2
`Types of Diesel Combustion Systems
`10.2.1 Direct-Injection Systems
`10.2.2
`Indirect-Injection Systems
`10.2.3 Comparison 01' Ditferent Combustion Systems
`Phenomenological Model of Compression-Ignition Engine
`Combustion
`10.3.1 Photographic Studies of Engine Combustion
`10.3.2 Combustion in Direct-Injection, Multispray System
`10.3.3 Application of Model to Other Combustion Systems
`Analysis of Cylinder Pressure Data
`10.4.1 Combustion Efficiency
`10.4.2 Direct-Injection Engines
`10.4.3
`Indirect-Injection Engines
`Fuel Spray Behavior
`10.5.1 Fuel Injection
`10.5.2 Overall Spray Structure
`10.5.3 Atomization
`10.5.4 Spray Penetration
`10.5.5 Droplet Size Distribution
`10.5.6 Spray Evaporation
`Ignition Delay
`10.6.1 Definition and Discussion
`10.6.2 Fuel Ignition Quality
`10.6.3 Autoignition Fundamentals
`10.6.4 Physical Factors Affecting Delay
`10.6.5 Effect of Fuel Properties
`10.6.6 Correlations for Ignition Delay in Engines
`Mixing-Controlled Combustion
`10.7.1 Background
`10.7.2 Spray and Flame Structure
`10.7.3 Fuel-Air Mixing and Burning Rates
`
`10.6
`
`10.7
`
`457
`470
`
`491
`491
`493
`493
`494
`495
`
`497
`497
`503
`506
`508
`509
`509
`514
`517
`517
`522
`525
`529
`532
`535
`539
`539
`541
`542
`546
`550
`553
`555
`555
`555
`558
`
`567
`567
`572
`572
`577
`578
`586
`592
`596
`596
`599
`
`Chapter 11 Pollutant Formation and Control
`11.1
`Nature and Extent of Problem
`11.2
`Nitrogen Oxides
`11.2.1 Kinetics of NO Formation
`11.2.2 Formation of NO2
`11.2.3 N0 Formation in Spark-Ignition Engines
`11.2.4 N0, Formation in Compression-Ignition Engines
`Carbon Monoxide
`Unburned Hydrocarbon Emissions
`1 1.4.1 Background
`11.4.2 Flame Quenching and Oxidation Fundamentals
`
`11.3
`11.4
`
`FORD Ex. 1125, page 13
`IPR2020-00013
`
`FORD Ex. 1125, page 13
` IPR2020-00013
`
`

`

` xiv
`
`CONTENTS
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`11.5
`
`11.6
`
`11.4.3 HC Emissions from Spark-Ignition Engines
`11.4.4 Hydrocarbon Emission Mechanisms in Diesel Engines
`Particulate Emissions
`11.5.1 Spark-Ignition Engine Particulates
`11.5.2 Characteristics of Diesel Particulates
`11.5.3 Particulate Distribution within the Cylinder
`11.5.4 Soot Formation Fundamentals
`11.5.5 Soot Oxidation
`11.5.6 Adsorption and Condensation
`Exhaust Gas Treatment
`11.6.1 Available Options
`11.6.2 Catalytic Converters
`11.6.3 Thermal Reactors
`11.6.4 Particulate Traps
`
`.
`
`Chapter 12 Engine Heat Transfer
`12.1
`Importance of Heat Transfer
`12.2
`Modes of Heat Transfer
`
`12.2.1 Conduction
`12.2.2 Convection
`12.2.3 Radiation
`12.2.4 Overall Heat-Transfer Process
`Heat Transfer and Engine Energy Balance
`Convective Heat Transfer
`12.4.1 Dimensional Analysis
`12.4.2 Correlations for Time-Averaged Heat Flux
`12.4.3 Correlations for Instantaneous Spatial
`Average Coefficients
`12.4.4 Correlations for Instantaneous Local Coefficients
`12.4.5
`Intake and Exhaust System Heat Transfer
`Radiative Heat Transfer
`12.5.1 Radiation from Gases
`12.5.2 Flame Radiation
`12.5.3 Prediction Formulas
`Measurements of Instantaneous Heat-Transfer Rates
`12.6.1 Measurement Methods
`12.6.2 Spark-Ignition Engine Measurements
`12.6.3 Diesel Engine Measurements
`12.6.4 Evaluation of Heat-Transfer Correlations
`12.6.5 Boundary-Layer Behavior
`Thermal Loading and Component Temperatures
`12.7.1 Component Temperature Distributions
`12.7.2 Effect of Engine Variables
`
`12.3
`12.4
`
`12.5
`
`12.6
`
`12.7
`
`Chapter 13 Engine Friction and Lubrication
`13.1
`Background
`13.2
`Definitions
`13.3
`Friction Fundamentals
`
`601
`620
`626
`626
`626
`631
`635
`642
`646
`648
`648
`649
`657
`659
`
`668
`668
`670
`
`670
`670
`671
`671
`673
`676
`676
`677
`
`678
`681
`682
`683
`633
`684
`688
`689
`689
`690
`692
`694
`697
`698
`698
`701
`
`712
`712
`714
`715
`
`13.4
`13.5
`
`13.5
`
`13.7
`13.8
`
`13.3.1
`13.3.2
`13.3.3
`Measur
`Engine
`135.]
`13.5.2
`Engine
`136.1
`13.6.2
`13.6.3
`13.6.4
`13.6.5
`Access:
`Lubricz
`
`:32;
`'
`'
`
`Chapter 14 Mod:
`PIOCE
`
`‘4‘1
`“'2
`
`14'3
`
`14.4
`
`14.5
`
`PM?“
`Goverr
`[4-2-1
`14.2.2
`Intake
`14-3-1
`14.3.2
`14-3-3
`[4-3-4
`Therm
`14.4.1
`14.4.2
`14.4.3
`14‘”
`14-4-5
`14‘456
`Flutd—
`14-5'1
`14.52
`14-5-3
`”-5.4
`iii-:6
`
`_
`Chapter 15 Eng]
`15.1
`Engin
`15.2
`Indies
`
`
`
`FORD Ex. 1125, page 14
`IPR2020-00013
`
`FORD Ex. 1125, page 14
` IPR2020-00013
`
`

`

`
`
`CONTENTS
`
`XV
`
`Engines
`s in Diesel Engines
`
`s
`Cylinder
`
`it Flux
`ial
`
`J Coefficients
`ansfer
`
`i'er Rates
`
`tions
`
`ures
`ms
`
`601
`620
`626
`626
`626
`631
`635
`642
`646
`648
`648
`649
`657
`659
`
`668
`668
`670
`670
`670
`671
`671
`673
`676
`676
`677
`
`678
`681
`682
`683
`683
`684
`688
`689
`689
`
`692
`694
`697
`698
`698
`701
`
`712
`712
`714
`715
`
`13.4
`13.5
`
`13.6
`
`13.7
`13.8
`
`13.3.1 Lubricated Friction
`13.3.2 Turbulent Dissipation
`13.3.3 Total Friction
`Measurement Methods
`Engine Friction Data
`13.5.1
`SI Engines
`13.5.2 Diesel Engines
`Engine Friction Components
`13.6.1 Motored Engine Breakdown Tests
`13.6.2 Pumping Friction
`13.6.3 Piston Assembly Friction
`13.6.4 Crankshaft Bearing Friction
`13.6.5 Valve Train Friction
`Accessory Power Requirements
`Lubrication
`13.8.1 Lubrication System
`13.8.2 Lubricant Requirements
`
`Chapter 14
`
`Modeling Real Engine Flow and Combustion
`Processes
`
`14.1
`14.2
`
`14.3
`
`14.4
`
`14.5
`
`Purpose and Classification of Models
`Governing Equations for Open Thermodynamic System
`14.2.1 Conservation of Mass
`14.2.2 Conservation of Energy
`Intake and Exhaust Flow Models
`14.3.1 Background
`14.3.2 Quasi-Steady Flow Models
`14.3.3 Filling and Emptying Methods
`14.3.4 Gas Dynamic Models
`Thermodynamic-Based In-Cylinder Models
`14.4.1 Background and Overall Model Structure
`14.4.2 Spark-Ignition Engine Models
`14.4.3 Direct-Injection Engine Models
`14.4.4 Prechamber Engine Models
`14.4.5 Multicylinder and Complex Engine System Models
`14.4.6 Second Law Analysis of Engine Processes
`Fluid-Mechanic-Based Multidimensional Models
`14.5.1 Basic Approach and Governing Equations
`14.5.2 Turbulence Models
`14.5.3 Numerical Methodology
`14.5.4 Flow Field Predictions
`14.5.5 Fuel Spray Modeling
`14.5.6 Combustion Modeling
`
`Chapter 15
`15.1
`15.2
`
`Engine Operating Characteristics
`Engine Performance Parameters
`Indicated and Brake Power and MEP
`
`715
`719
`719
`719
`722
`722
`724
`725
`725
`726
`729
`734
`737
`739
`740
`740
`741
`
`748
`748
`750
`750
`75 1
`753
`753
`753
`754
`756
`762
`762
`766
`778
`784
`789
`792
`797
`797
`800
`803
`807
`8 1 3
`8 1 6
`
`823
`823
`824
`
`FORD Ex. 1125, page 15
`IPR2020-00013
`
`FORD Ex. 1125, page 15
` IPR2020-00013
`
`

`

`xvi
`
`CONTENTS
`
`15.3
`
`15.4
`
`15.5
`
`15.6
`
`15.7
`
`Operating Variables That Ali'ect SI Engine Performance,
`Efficiency, and Emissions
`15.3.1 Spark Timing
`15.3.2 Mixture Composition
`15.3.3 Load and Speed
`15.3.4 Compression Ratio
`SI Engine Combustion Chamber Design
`15.4.1 Design Objectives and Options
`15.4.2 Factors That Control Combustion
`15.4.3 Factors That Control Performance
`15.4.4 Chamber Octane Requirement
`15.4.5 Chamber Optimization Strategy
`Variables That Afl'ect CI Engine Performance, Eli'rciency, and
`Emissions
`15.5.1 Load and Speed
`15.5.2 Fuel-Injection Parameters
`15.5.3 Air Swirl and Bowl-in-Piston Design
`Supercharged and Turbocharged Engine Performance
`15.6.1 Four-Stroke Cycle SI Engines
`15.6.2 Four-Stroke Cycle Cl Engines
`15.6.3 Two-Stroke Cycle SI Engines
`15.6.4 Two-Stroke Cycle CI Engines
`Engine Performance Summary
`-
`Appendlxes
`A Unit Conversion Factors
`B
`Ideal Gas Relationships
`3.1
`Ideal Gas Law
`.
`3‘2 The M013
`,
`3.3 Thermodynamrc Properties
`3.4 Mixtures of Ideal Gases
`Equations for Fluid Flow through a Restriction
`C.1 Liquid Flow
`(12 Gas Flow
`D Data on Working Fluids
`
`C
`
`Index
`
`827
`827
`829
`839
`841
`844
`844
`846
`850
`852
`857
`
`858
`858
`863
`866
`869
`869
`874
`881
`883
`886
`
`899
`902
`902
`903
`903
`905
`906
`90-,
`90-;
`911
`
`917
`
`Internal combustion
`spark-ignition engine
`engine. Since that tim
`of engine processes
`demand for new typ
`engine use changed. 1
`and manufacture the:
`fields of power, pl'OPlJ
`an explosive growth i
`lution fuel cost and
`’
`’
`tant. An enormous te
`adequately organized
`This book has be
`to that need. It contai
`principles which gov
`attempts to provide .
`technical material th
`
`engines, and at the sa
`dimensions of this pr:
`sound knowledge of
`tribute to this field, a
`base which has been
`research, developmen
`about engines. The er
`and chemistry, fluid
`vant to internal coml
`fuels requirements.
`
`
`
`FORD Ex. 1125, page 16
`IPR2020-00013
`
`FORD Ex. 1125, page 16
` IPR2020-00013
`
`

`

`
`
`CHAPTER
`
`
`
`ENGINE
`DESIGN
`AND OPERATING
`PARAMETERS
`
`lMPDfl'l‘A NT ENGINE
`2.1
`CHARACTERISTICS
`
`In this chapter, autllfi bush: gen
`monly used to chtirzuxter'tac engine 01m
`tant to an engine user are:
`
`metnuul relationships
`atiort are develop:
`
`.mct the parameters com-
`d. The factors impor-
`
`and the cost of the
`
`and
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`net: uvcr its oper.tling range
`1. The ettglnc'a ticsturmtt
`2. The engine} fuel musunutttun within this operating range
`mounted fut-J
`uni emissions within this operating range
`'« [10th and .m putlut
`'l‘hv engine
`A.
`at in lion
`4. The mittu'l rust of the tutgtnc and its inst
`L“ its maintenance requirements,
`S. The. leltahthty and durability of the cngm
`huw thew ufl‘cet Cltglntt availability and operating costs
`ugirtr‘. onenumg men‘s
`-Llstl'.il1_\‘ the primaryI constrict-
`
`I uprrattnfi can sans-[y mmmumenlul
`'l'hcse fncmrs enlitro‘t total e.
`
`tr; user— and whether the engine It
`ration of 11
`ith the perhmnttnt'u. efficiency.
`
`cutter-1 net! primarily w
`“on of tilt“ utllcr I‘ttctms listed
`tegnlnttona HHS hook IS.
`
`and emissions ehul‘uclenstica of engines; the Oltllhz‘
`
`way. reduce their great importance.
`
`ainwe does not‘ in any
`
` 42
`
`FORD EX. 1125, page 17
`IPR2020-00013
`
`FORD Ex. 1125, page 17
` IPR2020-00013
`
`

`

`
`
`
`
`CHAPTER
`
`2
`
`ENGINE DESIGN AND OPERATING PARAMETERS
`
`43
`
`Engine performance is more precisely defined by
`
`1. The maximum power (or the maximum torque) available at each speed within
`the useful engine operating range
`2. The range of speed and power over which engine operation is satisfactory
`
`
`
`The following performance definitions are commonly used:
`
`ENGINE
`DESIGN
`)PE RATING
`RAM ETERS
`
`and the parameters com-
`eloped. The factors Impor—
`
`Ig range and the cost of the
`
`tin this operating range
`
`intenancc requirements, and
`costs
`
`Isnnilv the primary consider-
`on can satisfy environmental
`the performance. ct‘fielcncy.
`t
`on of the other factors lrslml
`:tance.
`
`Maximum rated power. The highest power an engine is allowed to develop
`for short periods of operation.
`Normal rated power. The highest power an engine is allowed to develop in
`continuous operation.
`Rated speed. The crankshaft rotational speed at which rated power is devel-
`
`oped.
`
`2.2 GEOMETRICAL PROPERTIES OF
`RECIPROCATING ENGINES
`
`The following parameters define the basic geometry of a reciprocating engine (see
`Fig. 2-1):
`
`Compression ratio rc :
`
`
`_
`_
`* maximum cylinder volume _ Vd + Vc
`r‘ minimum cylinder volume
`V;
`where V,, is the displaced or swept volume and K is the clearance volume.
`Ratio of cylinder bore to piston stroke:
`
`B
`R = —
`L
`bs
`
`Ratio of connecting rod length to crank radius:
`1
`R = —
`a
`
`In addition, the stroke and crank radius are related by
`L = 2a
`
`2.1
`
`2.2
`
`)
`
`)
`
`(
`
`(
`
`(2.3)
`
`Typical values of these parameters are: rr = 8 to 12 for SI engines and rc = 12 to
`24 for CI engines; B/L = 0.8 to 1.2 for small- and medium-size engines, decreas-
`ing to about 0.5 for large slow-speed CI engines; R = 3 to 4 for small- and
`medium-size engines, increasing to 5 to 9 for large slow-speed CI engines.
`The cylinder volume V at any crank position 0 is
`2
`V=Vr+%(l+ais)
`
`(2.4)
`
`
`
`
`
`FORD Ex. 1125, page 18
`IPR2020-00013
`
`FORD Ex. 1125, page 18
` IPR2020-00013
`
`

`

`
`crank angle.
`
`44
`
`INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE FUNDAMENTALS
`
`FIGURE I-I
`connecting [UL].
`cyimdur, pixiun.
`Liunmuiry
`ui
`and
`trunkslmfl whele
`B = hurt.
`! = stroke.
`P: connecting rond iL‘l‘igih, n. : mink radius. H 2
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`where s is the distance between the crank axis and the piston pin axis (Fig. 2—1),
`and is given by
`s = (1 cos 0 + (l2 — a2 sin2 (9)“2
`(2.5)
`The angle 6, defined as shown in Fig. 2—1, is called the crank angle. Equation (2.4)
`with llu: above definitions can be rearranged:
`V
`(2'6)
`1 + i (r: — 1)[R + 1 — cos 9 — (R2 — Sinz (”112]
`y crank position 0 is given by
`(2.7)
`
`V.
`The combustion chamber surface area A at an
`A=Ach+Ap+nB(l+a—s)
`where Ach is the cylinder head surface area and AI, is IIIL‘ piston crown surface
`area. For flat-topped pistons, A!7 = 1131/4. Using Eq. 12.5]. Eq. (2-7) can be rear
`ranged :
`BL
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`A = A“, + AP + ”—2— [R + 1 — cos a — (R2 — sin2 will]
`An important characteristic speed is the mean piston speed SP:
`s, = 2LN
`where N is the rotational speed of the crankshaft. Mean piston speed is often a
`
`(2.8)
`
`(29)
`
`
`
`FORD Ex. 1125, page 19
`IPR2020-00013
`
`FORD Ex. 1125, page 19
` IPR2020-00013
`
`

`

`flaw—fl
`
`ENGINE DESIGN AND OPERATING PARAMETERS
`
`45
`
` FIGURE 2-2
`
`180
`BC
`
`Instantaneous piston speed/mean piston speed
`as a function of crank angle for R = 3.5.
`
`‘54EU:
`
`Crank angle, 6
`
`more appropriate parameter than crank rotational speed for correlating engine
`behavior as a function of speed. For example, gas-flow velocities in the intake
`and the cylinder all scale with Sp. The instantaneous piston velocity Sp is obtained
`from
`
`s, = —
`
`(2.10)
`
`The piston velocity is zero at the beginning of the stroke, reaches a maximum
`near the middle of the stroke, and decreases to zero at the end of the stroke.
`Differentiation of Eq. (2.5) and substitution gives
`
`s, _ 2 5m 6[1+rnz — sin2 a)”2
`cos ti
`E11 _ E _
`
`:l
`
`(2'11)
`
`Figure 2-2 shows how 5,, varies over each stroke for R = 3.5.
`Resistance to gas flow into the engine or stresses due to the inertia of the
`moving parts limit the maximum mean piston speed to within the range 8 to 15
`m/s (1500 to 3000 ft/min). Automobile engines operate at the higher end of this
`range; the lower end is typical of large marine diesel engines.
`
`2.3 BRAKE TORQUE AND POWER
`
`Engine torque is normally measured with a dynamometer.l The engine is
`Clamped on a test bed and the shaft is Connected to the dynamometer rotor.
`I'Igure 2-3 illustrates the operating principle of a dynamometer. The rotor is
`
`connecting rod,
`der, piston,
`there
`B : bore,
`L 2 stroke,
`length, a = crank radius, 9 =
`
`piston pin axis (Fig. 2-1),
`
`2
`
`(2-5)
`
`crank angle. Equation (2.4)
`
`— sin2 (9)112]
`
`(2'6)
`
`rank position 6 is given by
`
`s)
`
`(2.7)
`
`is the piston crown surface
`(2.5), Eq. (2-7) can be rear-
`
`R2 — sin2 (9)1’2]
`
`(23)
`
`start speed Sp:
`
`(2.9)
`
`dean piston speed is often a
`
`
`
`FORD Ex. 1125, page 20
`IPR2020-00013
`
`FORD Ex. 1125, page 20
` IPR2020-00013
`
`

`

`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`46
`
`INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE FUNDAMENTALS
`
`2
`
`'
`
`Force F
`
`fr
`/’ Stator—7"
`/—-.
`El ll
`
`l\
`
`l'fifil
`
`\
`/ _
`
`X
`\x
`
`_
`
`W
`
`FIGURE 2-3
`Schematic of principle of operation of dynamometer
`
`
`
`coupled eletilrnmugnellcally. hydraulically. Or by mechanical Iiieimn in n «Mini.
`which is nuppnrlccl in low friction hearings. The slam: is balanced with this IUIL'I
`slnlmnni-y. The lmquc exerted ml the stator will: the rnlm turning is measured
`lay balancing lhe stator Wills weighls. springs. or pnelumilie means.
`Usinglliemnlallinn1n My .13, if the lurqlle c-Jtul‘led by the engine lh'
`T = Fb
`
`(2.12)
`
`'l'
`
`The power P delivered by the engine and absorbed by the dynamometer is the
`product of torque and angular speed:
`P = 2nNT
`
`(2.13a)
`
`where N is the crankshaft rotational speed. In SI units:
`
`P(kW) = 27tN(rev/s)T(N‘m) x 10'3
`
`(2.1%)
`
`or in US. units:
`
`N(rev/rnin) T(lbf~ft)
`P h = ————
`5252
`( p)
`
`.
`(213c)
`
`Note that torque is a measure of an engine’s ability to do work; power is the rate
`at which work is done.
`The value of engine power measured as described above is called brake
`power Pb. This power is the usable power delivered by the engine to the load—in
`this case, a “ brake.”
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
` 2.4
`
`INDICATED WORK PER CYCLE
`
`
`
`
`III the cylinder over llw. nucmllng cycle of the engine
`the gin;
`Pressure dalu In:
`can he used [u calculate the. W£|I.l\ ifuflhl'm from the gas in she- piston The cylin-
`der pressure and currcujmlliilng 'JN'llllLlEl volume Ilurmlglwul llil: engine cycle. can
`he planed on :1 p--l-" (litigrmu :15 flhliwn in Fig. 2-4. The imlliuh'u'
`lwII-l‘i g-u'r Lydi-
`bt"[_,'l' (per cylinder] LR nhluincd by inlcgruilng mound llw curve to ulnuin the
`
`
`
`
`
` T The term indicated is used because such p-V dia