Internal
`Combustion Engine
`Qiteteetestselete
`
`a
`eeene
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`IPR2020-00013
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`John B. Heywood
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`FORD Ex. 1125, page 1
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`INTERNAL COMBUSTION
`ENGINE FUNDAMENTALS
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`McGraw-Hill Series in Mechanical E-ngineering
`
`Jack P. Holman, Southern Methodist University
`Consulting Editor
`
`Anderson: Modern Compressible Flow: With Historical Perspective
`Dieter: Engineering Design: A Materials and Processing Approach
`Eckert and Drake: Analysis of Heat and Mass Transfer
`Heywood: Internal Combustion Engine Fundamentals
`Hinze: Turbulence, 2/e
`Hutton: Applied Mechanical Vibrations
`Juvinall: Engineering Considerations ofStress, Strain, and Strengtp.
`Kane and Levinson: Dynamics: Theory and Applications
`Kays and Crawford: Convective Heat and Mass Transfer
`Martin: Kinematics and Dynamics of Machines
`Phelan: Dynamics of Machinery
`Phelan: Fundamentals of Mechanical Design, 3/e
`Pierce: Acoustics: An Introduction to Its Physical Principles and Applications
`Raven: Automatic Control Engineering, 4/e
`Rosenberg and Karnopp: Introduction to Physics
`Schlichting: Boundary-Layer Theory, 7/e
`Shames: Mechanics of Fluids, 2/e
`Shigley: Kinematic Analysis of Mechanisms, 2/e
`Shigley and Mitchell: Mechanical Engineering Design, 4/e
`Shigley and Vicker: Theory of Machines and Mechanisms
`Stoecker and Jones: Refrigeration and Air Conditioning, 2/e
`Vanderplaats: Numerical Optimization Techniques for Engineering Design:
`With Applications
`
`
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`
`
`
`INTERNAL
`COMBUSTION
`ENGINE
`FUNDAMENTALS
`
`John B. Heywood
`Prafessor of Mechanical Engineering
`Director, Sloan Automotive Laboratory
`Massachusetts Institute of Technology
`
`2ctive
`aach
`
`ngth
`
`d Applications
`
`ng Design:
`
`McGraw-Hill, Inc.
`New York St.Louis San Francisco Auckland Bogot4
`Caracas Lisbon London Madrid Mexico Milan
`Montreal New Delhi Paris San Juan Singapore
`Sydney Tokyo Toronto
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`INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE FUNDAMENTALS
`
`This book was set in Times Roman.
`Theeditors were Anne Duffy and John M. Morriss; the designer
`was Joan E. O'Connor; the production supervisor was
`Denise L. Puryear. New drawings were done by ANCO.
`Project Supervision was done by Santype International Ltd.
`R. R. Donnelley & Sons Company was printer and binder.
`
`See acknowledgements on page xxi.
`
`Copyright © 1988 by McGraw-Hill, Inc. All rights reserved.
`Printed in the United States of America. Except as permitted under the
`United States Copyright Act of 1976, no part of this publication may be
`reproduced or distributed in any form omby any means, orstored in a data
`base orretrieval system, without the prior written permission
`of the publisher.
`
`7890 DOCDOC 93
`
`ISBN 0-0'?-O28b3?-X
`
`Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
`Heywood, John B.
`Internal combustion engine fundamentals.
`(McGraw-Hill series in mechanical engineering)
`aEse .
`ncludes index.
`1. Internal combustion engines.
`TJ755.H45
`1988
`621.43
`
`I. Title.
`87-1525]
`
`II. Series.
`
`:
`
`Dr. John B. Heywood
`the Massachusetts Inst
`doctoral year of resear
`—s
`5
`Electricity Generating
`hydrodynamic power§
`is Professor of Mechz
`Automotive Laborator
`Division of the Mech
`Energy Program Dire
`to the MIT Sports Car
`Professor Heywoo
`modynamics, combust
`decades, his research a
`fuels requirements of
`been on computer mc
`sions of spark-ignitic
`experiments to develo
`technology assessmen
`mobile fuel utilization
`the automotive and px
`His extensive rese
`Army, Department
`National Science Fou
`petroleum companies.
`
`
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`
`
`ABOUT THE AUTHOR
`
`the
`
`a data
`
`Dr. John B. Heywood received the Ph.D. degree in mechanical engineering from
`the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1965. Following an additional post-
`doctoral year of research at MIT, he worked as a research officer at the Central
`Electricity Generating Board’s Research Laboratory in England on magneto-
`hydrodynamic power generation. In 1968 he joined the faculty at MIT where he
`is Professor of Mechanical Engineering. At MIT he is Director of the Sloan
`Automotive Laboratory. He is currently Head of the Fluid and Thermal Science
`Division of the Mechanical Engineering Department, and the Transportation
`Energy Program Director in the MIT Energy Laboratory. He is faculty advisor
`to the MIT Sports Car Club.
`Professor Heywood’s teaching and research interests lie in the areas of ther-
`modynamics, combustion, energy, power, and propulsion. During the past two
`decades, his research activities have centered on the operating characteristics and
`fuels requirements of automotive and aircraft engines. A major emphasis has
`been on computer models which predict the performance, efficiency, and emis-
`sions of spark-ignition, diesel, and gas turbine engines, and in carrying out
`experiments to develop and validate these models. He is also actively involved in
`technology assessments and policy studies related to automotive engines, auto-
`mobile fuel utilization, and the control of air pollution. He consults frequently in
`the automotive and petroleum industries, and for the U.S. Government.
`His extensive research in the field of engines has been supported by the US.
`Army, Department of Energy, Environmental Protection Agency, NASA,
`National Science Foundation, automobile and diesel engine manufacturers, and
`petroleum companies. He has presented or published over a hundred papers on
`
`Vv
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`Vi
`
`ABOUT THE AUTHOR
`
`his research in technical conferences and journals. He has co-authored two pre-
`vious books: Open-Cycle MHD Power Generation published by Pergamon Press
`in 1969 and The Automobile and the Regulation of Its Impact on the Environment
`published by University of Oklahoma Press in 1975.
`He is a memberof the American Society of Mechanical Engineers, an associ-
`ate fellow of the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, a fellow of
`the British Institution of Mechanical Engineers, and in 1982 was elected a Fellow
`of the U.S, Society of Automotive Engineers for his technical contributions to
`automotive engineering. He is a member of the editorial boards of the journals
`Progress in Energy and Combustion Science and the International Journal of
`Vehicle Design.
`as
`His research publications on internal combustion engines, power generation,
`and gas turbine combustion have won numerous awards. He was awarded the
`Ayreton Premium in 1969 by the British Institution of Electrical Engineers. Pro-
`fessor Heywood received a Ralph R. Teetor Award as an outstanding young
`engineering educator from the Society of Automotive Engineers in 1971. He has
`twice been the recipient of an SAE Arch T. Colwell Merit Award for an outstand-
`ing technical publication (1973 and 1981). He received SAE’s Horning Memorial
`Award for the best paper on engines and fuels in 1984. In 1984 he received the
`Sc.D. degree from Cambridge University for his published contributions to
`engineering research. He wasselected as the 1986 American Society of Mechani-
`cal Engineers Freeman Scholar for a major review of “Fluid Motion within the
`Cylinder of Internal Combustion Engines.”
`
`
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`
`
`as co-authored two pre-
`shed by Pergamon Press
`‘pact on the Environment
`
`cal Engineers, an associ-
`Astronautics, a fellow of
`182 was elected a Fellow
`shnical contributions to
`| boards of the journals
`'nternational Journal of
`
`gines, power generation,
`ts. He was awarded the
`lectrical Engineers. Pro-
`an outstanding young
`iineers in 1971. He has
`Award for an outstand-
`\E’s Horning Memorial
`In 1984 he received the
`lished contributions to
`xan Society of Mechani-
`‘luid Motion within the
`
`THIS BOOK IS DEDICATED TO MY FATHER,
`Harold Heywood:
`
`I havefollowed manyof the paths he took.
`
`vii
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`
`
`CONTENTS
`
`
`Preface
`
`xvii
`
`Commonly Used Symbols, Subscripts, and
`Abbreviations
`
`Chapter 1
`Lt
`1.2
`1.3
`1.4
`1.5
`1.6
`17
`18
`19
`
`Chapter 2
`2.1
`2.2
`2.3
`2.4
`2.5
`2.6
`2.7
`2.8
`2.9
`
`Engine Types and Their Operation
`Introduction and Historical Perspective
`Engine Classifications
`Engine Operating Cycles
`Engine Components
`Spark-Ignition Engine Operation
`Examples of Spark-Ignition Engines
`Compression-Ignition Engine Operation
`Examples of Diesel Engines
`Stratified-Charge Engines
`
`Engine Design and Operating Parameters
`Important Engine Characteristics
`Geometrical Properties of Reciprocating Engines
`Brake Torque and Power
`Indicated Work Per Cycle
`Mechanical Efficiency
`Road-Load Power
`Mean Effective Pressure
`Specific Fuel Consumption and Efficiency
`Air/Fuel and Fuel/Air Ratios
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`x
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`CONTENTS
`
`2.10 Volumetric Efficiency
`2.11
`Engine Specific Weight and Specific Volume
`2.12 Correction Factors for Power and Volumetric Efficiency
`2.13
`Specific Emissions and Emissions Index
`2.14
`Relationships between Performance Parameters
`2.15
`Engine Design and Performance Data
`
`53
`54
`54
`56
`56
`37
`
`5,5
`
`5.6
`5.7
`
`
`
`ne a
`2 rearens
`53 Thensd
`5.4
`Cycle Anal:
`,
`Constant
`5.4.1 Con
`5.4.2 Lim:
`;
`——
`5.43 Cyc
`62
`Chapter 3 Thermochemistry of Fuel-Air Mixtures
` Fuel-AirC
`62
`3.1
`Characterization of Flames
`5.5.1 SIE
`64
`3.2
`Ideal Gas Model
`35.2 CIE
`64
`3.3.
`Composition of Air and Fuels
`$5.3 Rest
`68
`3.4
`Combustion Stoichiometry
`Overexpan
`72
`3.5
`The First Law of Thermodynamics and Combustion
`Availability
`72
`3.5.1 Energy and Enthalpy Balances
`5.7.1 Ava
`16
`3.5.2. Enthalpies of Formation
`5.7.2 Ent
`8
`3.5.3 Heating Values
`5.7.3 Ava
`80
`3.5.4 Adiabatic Combustion Processes
`5.74 Effe
`81
`3.5.5 Combustion Efficiency of an Internal Combustion Engine
`
`
`3.6 5.8|ComparisaThe Second Law of Thermodynamics Applied to Combustion 83
`3.6.1 Entropy
`83
`3.6.2 Maximum Work from an Internal Combustion
`Engine and Efficiency
`Chemically Reacting Gas Mixtures
`3.7.1 Chemical Equilibrium
`3.7.2. Chemical Reaction Rates
`
`3.7
`
`83
`85
`86
`92
`
`Chapter 4 Properties of Working Fluids
`P
`pe
`&
`4.1
`Introduction
`Unburned Mixture Composition
`4.2
`4.3.
`Gas Property Relationships
`44
`A Simple Analytic Ideal Gas Model
`45
`Thermodynamic Charts
`4.5.1 Unburned Mixture Charts
`4.5.2 Burned Mixture Charts
`4.5.3. Relation between Unburned and Burned
`Mixture Charts
`Tables of Properties and Composition
`Computer Routines for Property and Composition Calculations
`4.7.1 Unburned Mixtures
`4.7.2 Burned Mixtures
`Transport Properties
`Exhaust Gas Composition
`4.9.1
`Species Concentration Data
`
`4.6
`4.7
`
`48
`49
`
`4.9.2 Equivalence Ratio Determination from Exhaust
`Gas Constituents
`4.9.3 Effects of Fuel/Air Ratio Nonuniformity
`49.4 Combustion Inefficiency
`
`100.
`100
`102
`107
`109
`112
`112
`116
`
`123
`127
`130
`130
`135
`141
`145
`145
`
`148
`152
`154
`
`Chapter 6 Gas Exc
`6.1
`InletandE
`62
`Volumetric
`6.2.1 Que
`6.2.2 Cor
`6.2.3 Var
`6)
`6.3.1
`Pog
`632 Flo
`Residual €
`Exhaust €
`Scavengin
`6.6.1 Tw
`6.6.2
`Sca
`6.6.3 Aci
`Flow Thr:
`Superchai
`6.8.1 Me
`682 Ba
`6.8.3 Cc
`684 Ty
`6.8.5 W
`
`64
`6.5
`6.6
`
`6.7
`6.8
`
`Ceaprer’? ote
`ve
`Spark-Ig
`Carburet
`
`21
`7.2
`
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`CONTENTS Xi
`
`Chapter 5
`5.1
`5.2
`3.3
`5.4
`
`3.3
`
`5.6
`
`5.8
`
`Chapter 6
`6.1
`6,2
`
`6.3
`
`6.4
`
`6.6
`
`6.7
`6.8
`
`Ideal Models of Engine Cycles
`Introduction
`Ideal Models of Engine Processes
`Thermodynamic Relations for Engine Processes
`Cycle Analysis with Ideal Gas Working Fluid with c, and c,
`Constant
`5.4.1 Constant-Volume Cycle
`5.4.2 Limited- and Constant-Pressure Cycles
`54.3 Cycle Comparison
`Fuel-Air Cycle Analysis
`5.5.1
`SI Engine Cycle Simulation
`§.5.2 Cl Engine Cycle Simulation
`5.5.3 Results of Cycle Calculations
`Overexpanded Engine Cycles
`Availability Analysis of Engine Processes
`5.7.1 Availability Relationships
`5.7.2 Entropy Changesin Ideal Cycles
`5.7.3 Availability Analysis of Ideal Cycles
`5.7.4 Effect of Equivalence Ratio
`Comparison with Real Engine Cycles
`
`Gas Exchange Processes
`Inlet and Exhaust Processes in the Four-Stroke Cycle
`Volumetric Efficiency
`6.2.1 Quasi-Static Effects
`6.2.2 Combined Quasi-Static and Dynamic Effects
`6.2.3 Variation with Speed, and Valve Area, Lift, and Timing
`Flow Through Valves
`6.3.1 Poppet Valve Geometry and Timing
`6.3.2. Flow Rate and Discharge Coefficients
`Residual Gas Fraction
`Exhaust Gas Flow Rate and Temperature Variation
`Scavenging in Two-Stroke Cycle Engines
`6.6.1 Two-Stroke Engine Configurations
`6.6.2 Scavenging Parameters and Models
`6.6.3 Actual Scavenging Processes
`Flow Through Ports
`Supercharging and Turbocharging
`6.8.1 Methods of Power Boosting
`6.8.2 Basic Relationships
`6.8.3 Compressors
`6.8.4 Turbines
`6.8.5 Wave-Compression Devices
`
`Chapter 7
`
`SI Engine Fuel Metering and Manifold
`Phenomena
`
`7.1
`7.2
`
`Spark-Ignition Engine Mixture Requirements
`Carburetors
`
`161
`161
`162
`
`169
`169
`172
`173
`177
`178
`180
`181
`183
`186
`186
`188
`189
`192
`193
`
`205
`206
`209
`209
`212
`216
`220
`220
`225
`230
`231
`235
`235
`237
`240
`245
`248
`248
`249
`255
`263
`270
`
`279
`279
`282
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`33
`34
`54
`56
`56
`37
`
`62
`62
`
`68
`72
`72
`76
`2B
`80
`
`88
`
`3
`83
`
`83
`85
`
`92
`
`100
`100
`102
`107
`109
`112
`112
`116
`
`123
`127
`130
`130
`138
`141
`145
`145
`
`148
`152
`154
`
`‘ic Efficiency
`
`ters
`
`xtures
`
`ibustion
`
`Combustion Engine
`d to Combustion
`
`mbustion
`
`ed
`
`sition Calculations
`
`| Exhaust
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`CONTENTS
`xii
`
`
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`
`
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`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`7.3
`
`74
`7.5
`7.6
`
`
`
`9.6.2
`9.6.3
`
`10.3
`
`10.4
`
`282
`7.2.1 Carburetor Fundamentals
`285
`72.2 Modern Carburetor Design
`294
`Fuel-Injection Systems
`294
`7.3.1 Multipoint Port Injection
`Chapter 10 Cor
`299
`7.32 Single-Point Throttle-BodyInjection
`10.1
`Essen
`301
`Feedback Systems
`10.2
`Types
`304
`Flow Past Throitle Plate
`—
`308
`Flow in Intake Manifolds
`10.2.2
`308
`7.6.1 Design Requirements
`10.2.3
`309
`7.6.2 Air-Flow Phenomena
`aan
`314
`7.6.3 Fuel-Flow Phenomena
`10.3.1
`3
`5
`ee
`10.3.2
`326
`Chapter 8 Charge Motion within the Cylinder
`10.3.3
`326
`8.1
`Intake Jet Flow
`Analy
`330
`8.2
`Mean Velocity and Turbulence Characteristics
`10.4.1
`330
`8.2.1 Definitions
`10.4.2
`336
`8.2.2 Application to Engine Velocity Data
`
`8.3=Swirl 342 10.4.
`
`8.3.1
`Swirl Measurement
`343
`10.5
`Fuel
`8.3.2 Swirl Generation during Induction
`345
`10.5.1
`8.3.3 Swirl Modification within the Cylinder
`349
`10.5.2
`
`Squish
`353
`10.5.:
`84
`
`Prechamber Engine Flows
`357
`10.54
`8.5
`
`Crevice Flows and Blowby
`360
`10.5.:
`8.6
`
`Flows Generated by Piston-Cylinder Wall Interaction
`365
`10.5.
`8.7
`
`10.6—[gnit
`Chapter 9 Combustion in Spark-Ignition Engines
`371
`an
`9.1
`Essential Features of Process
`371
`106.
`9.2
`Thermodynamic Analysis of SI Engine Combustion
`376
`10.6.
`9.2.1. Burned and Unburned Mixture States
`376
`10.6.
`9.2.2 Analysis of Cylinder Pressure Data
`383
`106.
`9.2.3. Combustion Process Characterization
`389
`Mixi
`Flame Structure and Speed
`390
`107.
`9.3.1 Experimental Observations
`390
`10.7.
`9.3.2 Flame Structure
`395
`10.7
`9.3.3 Laminar Burning Speeds
`402
`9.3.4 Flame Propagation Relations
`406
`Cyclic Variations in Combustion, Partial Burning, and Misfire
`413
`9.4.1 Observations and Definitions *
`413
`9.4.2 Causes of Cycle-by-Cycle and Cylinder-to-Cylinder
`Variations
`9.4.3, Partial Burning, Misfire, and Engine Stability
`Spark Ignition
`9.5.1
`Ignition Fundamentals
`9.5.2 Conventional Ignition Systems
`9.5.3 Alternative Ignition Approaches
`Abnormal Combustion: Knock and Surface Ignition
`9.6.1 Description of Phenomena
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`9.3
`
`9.4
`
`95
`
`9.6
`
`
`
`10.7
`
`Chapter 11
`til
`11.2
`
`11.3
`1.4
`
`Po!
`Nat
`Nitr
`11.2
`11.2
`11.2
`11.2
`Car
`Uni
`1lé
`11s
`
`419
`424
`427
`427
`437
`443
`450
`450
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`
`
`282
`285
`294
`294
`299
`301
`304
`308
`308
`309
`314
`
`326
`326
`330
`330
`336
`342
`343
`345
`349
`353
`357
`360
`365
`
`371
`37
`376
`376
`
`der
`
`tics
`
`er
`
`‘nteraction
`
`igines
`
`bustion
`$
`
`tning, and Misfire
`
`t-to-Cylinder
`
`stability
`
`[gnition
`
`CONTENTS
`
`xili
`
`Chapter 10
`10.1
`10.2
`
`10.3
`
`10.4
`
`10.5
`
`10.6
`
`10.7
`
`9.6.2 Knock Fundamentals
`9.6.3 Fuel Factors
`
`Combustion in Compression-Ignition Engines
`Essential Features of Process
`Types of Diesel Combustion Systems
`10.2.1 Direct-Injection Systems
`10.2.2
`Indirect-Injection Systems
`10.2.3 Comparison of Different Combustion Systems
`Phenomenological Model of Compression-Ignition Engine
`Combustion
`10.3.1 Photographic Studies of Engine Combustion
`10.3.2. Combustion in Direct-Injection, Multispray Systems
`10.3.3. Application of Model to Other Combustion Systems
`Analysis of Cylinder Pressure Data
`10.4.1 Combustion Efficiency
`10.4.2 Direct-Injection Engines
`10.4.3
`Indirect-Injection Engines
`Fuel Spray Behavior
`10.5.1 Fuel Injection
`10.5.2 Overall Spray Structure
`10.5.3 Atomization
`10.5.4 Spray Penetration
`10.5.5 Droplet Size Distribution
`10.5.6 Spray Evaporation
`Ignition Delay
`10.6.1 Definition and Discussion
`10.6.2 Fuel Ignition Quality
`10.6.3 Autoignition Fundamentals
`10.6.4 Physical Factors Affecting Delay
`10.6.5 Effect of Fuel Properties
`10.6.6 Correlations for Ignition Delay in Engines
`Mixing-Controlled Combustion
`10.7.1 Background.
`10.7.2. Spray and Flame Structure
`10.7.3 Fuel-Air Mixing and Burning Rates
`
`Chapter 11
`11.1
`11.2
`
`11.3
`11.4
`
`Pollutant Formation and Control
`Nature and Extent of Problem
`Nitrogen Oxides
`11.2.1 Kinetics of NO Formation
`11.2.2 Formation of NO,
`11.2.3. NO Formation in Spark-Ignition Engines
`11.2.4 NO, Formation in Compression-Ignition Engines
`Carbon Monoxide
`Unburned Hydrocarbon Emissions
`11.4.1 Background
`11.4.2 Flame Quenching and Oxidation Fundamentals
`
`457
`470
`
`491
`491
`493
`493
`494
`495
`
`497
`497
`503
`306
`508
`$09
`309
`314
`$17
`317
`522
`525
`329
`532
`535
`539
`539
`541
`542
`546
`350
`553
`355
`555
`355
`558
`
`567
`567
`572
`372
`377
`378
`586
`392
`596
`596
`399
`
`FORD Ex.1125, page 13
`IPR2020-00013
`
`FORD Ex. 1125, page 13
` IPR2020-00013
`
`

`

` XIV
`
`CONTENTS
`
`11.5
`
`11.6
`
`13.4
`13.5
`
`13.6
`
`i
`
`
`
`13.4.1
`601
`11.4.3 HC Emissions from Spark-Ignition Engines
`13.3.2
`620
`11.4.4 Hydrocarbon Emission Mechanisms in Diesel Engines
`
`13.3.3
`626
`Particulate Emissions
`
`Measur
`626
`11.5.1 Spark-Ignition Engine Particulates
`
`Engine
`626
`11.5.2 Characteristics of Diesel Particulates
`
`13.5.1
`631
`11.5.3 Particulate Distribution within the Cylinder
`
`13.5.2
`635
`11.5.4 Soot Formation Fundamentals
`
`
`Engine
`642
`11.5.5 Soot Oxidation
`13.6.1
`646
`11.5.6 Adsorption and Condensation
`
`13.6.2
`648
`Exhaust Gas Treatment
`
`13.6.3
`648
`11.6.1 Available Options
`
`13.6.4
`649
`11.6.2 Catalytic Converters
`
`13.6.5
`657
`11.6.3. Thermal Reactors
`
`
`
`11.64 Particulate Traps 13.7—Accessc659
`
`13.8
`Lubrice
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`Chapter 12 Engine Heat Transfer
`12.1
`Importance of Heat Transfer
`12.2
`Modes of Heat Transfer
`12.2.1 Conduction
`12.2.2 Convection
`12.2.3. Radiation
`12.2.4 Overall Heat-Transfer Process
`Heat Transfer and Engine Energy Balance
`Convective Heat Transfer
`12.4.1 Dimensional Analysis
`12.4.2 Correlations for Time-Averaged Heat Flux
`12.4.3 Correlations for Instantaneous Spatial
`Average Coefficients
`12.4.4 Correlations for Instantaneous Local Coefficients
`12.4.5
`Intake and Exhaust System Heat Transfer
`Radiative Heat Transfer
`12.5.1 Radiation from Gases
`12.5.2 Flame Radiation
`12,5,3 Prediction Formulas
`Measurements of Instantaneous Heat-Transfer Rates
`12.6.1 Measurement Methods
`12.6.2 Spark-Ignition Engine Measurements
`12.6.3 Diesel Engine Measurements
`12.6.4 Evaluation of Heat-Transfer Correlations
`12.6.5 Boundary-Layer Behavior
`Thermal Loading and Component Temperatures
`12.7.1 Component Temperature Distributions
`12.7.2 Effect of Engine Variables
`Chapter 13. Engine Friction and Lubrication
`13.1
`Background
`13.2.
`Definitions
`13.3.
`Friction Fundamentals
`
`12.3
`12.4
`
`12.5
`
`12.6
`
`12.7
`
`668
`668
`670
`670
`670
`671
`671
`673
`676
`676
`677
`
`678
`681
`682
`683
`683
`684
`688
`689
`689
`690
`692
`694
`697
`698
`698
`701
`712
`2
`714
`715
`
`ae
`-
`
`Chapter 14 Mode
`Proce
`
`14.1
`14.2
`
`143
`
`144
`
`14.5
`
`Purpos
`Goverr
`14.2.1
`14.2.2
`Intake
`14.3.1
`14,3.2
`14.3.3
`14.3.4
`Therm
`14.4.1
`14.4.2
`14.4.3
`14.4.4
`14.4.5
`14.4.6
`Fluid-
`14.5.1
`14.5.2
`14.5.3
`145.4
`ee
`
`Chapter 15 Engi
`15.1
`Engin
`15,2.
`
`FORD Ex. 1125, page 14
`IPR2020-00013
`
`Indica
`
`
`
`
`
`FORD Ex. 1125, page 14
` IPR2020-00013
`
`

`

`
`
`CONTENTS
`
`xX¥
`
`13.4
`13.5
`
`13.6
`
`13.7
`13.8
`
`13.3.1 Lubricated Friction
`13.3.2 Turbulent Dissipation
`13.3.3. Total Friction
`Measurement Methods
`Engine Friction Data
`13.5.1
`SI Engines
`13.5.2 Diesel Engines
`Engine Friction Components
`13.6.1 Motored Engine Breakdown Tests
`13.6.2 Pumping Friction
`13.6.3 Piston Assembly Friction
`13.6.4 Crankshaft Bearing Friction
`13.6.5 Valve Train Friction
`Accessory Power Requirements
`Lubrication
`13.8.1 Lubrication System
`13.8.2 Lubricant Requirements
`
`Chapter 14
`
`Modeling Real Engine Flow and Combustion
`Processes
`
`14.1
`14.2
`
`14.3
`
`14.4
`
`14.5
`
`Purpose and Classification of Models
`Governing Equations for Open Thermodynamic System
`14.2.1 Conservation of Mass
`14.2.2 Conservation of Energy
`Intake and Exhanpst Flow Models
`14.3.1 Background
`14.3.2 Quasi-Steady Flow Models
`14.3.3. Filling and Emptying Methods
`14.3.4 Gas Dynamic Models
`Thermodynamic-Based In-Cylinder Models
`14.4.1 Background and Overall Model Structure
`14.4.2 Spark-Ignition Engine Models
`14.4.3. Direct-Injection Engine Models
`14.4.4 Prechamber Engine Models
`14.4.5 Maulticylinder and Complex Engine System Models
`14.46 Second Law Analysis of Engine Processes
`Fluid-Mechanic-Based Multidimensional Models
`14.5.1 Basic Approach and Governing Equations
`14.5.2. Turbulence Models
`14.5.3. Numerical Methodology
`14.5.4 Flow Field Predictions
`14.5.5 Fuel Spray Modeling
`14.5.6 Combustion Modeling
`
`Chapter 15
`15.1
`15.2
`
`Engine Operating Characteristics
`Engine Performance Parameters
`Indicated and Brake Power and MEP
`
`715
`719
`719
`719
`722
`722
`724
`725
`725
`726
`729
`734
`737
`739
`740
`740
`741
`
`748
`748
`750
`750
`751
`753
`753
`753
`754
`756
`762
`762
`766
`778
`784
`789
`792
`797
`797
`800
`803
`807
`813
`816
`
`823
`823
`824
`
`FORD Ex.1125, page 15
`IPR2020-00013
`
`670
`670
`671
`671
`673
`676
`676
`677
`
`678
`681
`682
`683
`683
`684
`688
`689
`689
`
`692
`694
`697
`698
`698
`701
`
`712
`712
`714
`715
`
`Engines
`s in Diesel Engines
`
`s C
`
`ylinder
`
`it Flux
`ial
`
`1 Coefficients
`ansfer
`
`fer Rates
`
`tions
`
`Ures
`ns
`
`FORD Ex. 1125, page 15
` IPR2020-00013
`
`

`

`X¥i|CONTENTS
`
`Internal combustion
`spark-ignition engine
`engine. Since that tim
`of engine processes
`demand for new typ
`engine use changed.I
`and manufacture the:
`fields of power, propt
`an explosive growth i
`lution, fuel cost, and
`tant. An enormouste
`adequately organized
`This book has be
`to that need. It conta:
`principles which gov
`attempts to provide.
`technical material th
`engines, and at the sa
`dimensionsofthis pr:
`sound knowledge of
`tribute to this field, a
`base which has been
`research, developmen
`about engines. The et
`and chemistry, fluid
`vant to internal comt
`fuels requirements.
`
`Operating Variables That Affect SI Engine Performance,
`Efficiency, and Emissions
`15.3.1 Spark Timing
`15.3.2 Mixture Composition
`15.3.3. Load and Speed
`15.3.4 Compression Ratio
`SI Engine Combustion Chamber Design
`13.4.1 Design Objectives and Options
`15.4.2 Factors That Control Combustion
`15.4.3. Factors That Control Performance
`15.4.4 Chamber Octane Requirement
`15.4.5 Chamber Optimization Strategy
`Variables That Affect CI Engine Performance, Efficiency, and
`Emissions
`15.5.1 Load and Speed
`15.5.2 Fuel-Injection Parameters
`15.5.3 Air Swirl and Bowl-in-Piston Design
`Supercharged and Turbocharged Engine Performance
`15.6.1 Four-Stroke Cycle SI Engines
`15.6.2 Four-Stroke Cycle CI Engines
`15.6.3 Two-Stroke Cycle SI Engines
`15.64 Two-Stroke Cycle CI Engines
`Engine Performance Summary
`
`827
`827
`829
`839
`841
`
`844
`
`850
`852
`857
`
`858
`858
`863
`866
`869
`869
`874
`881
`883
`886
`
`Appendixes
`Unit Conversion Factors
`Ideal Gas Relationships
`B.I
`Idea] Gas Law
`B.2 The Mole
`
`B.3 Thermodynamic Properties
`B4 Mixtures of Ideal Gases
`Equations for Fluid Flow through a Restriction
`C.t Liquid Flow
`C2. Gas Flow
`Data on Working Fluids
`
`13.3
`
`15.4
`
`15.5
`
`15.6
`
`15.7
`
`AB
`
`D
`
`Index
`
`
`
`FORD Ex. 1125, page 16
`IPR2020-00013
`
`FORD Ex. 1125, page 16
` IPR2020-00013
`
`

`

`
`CHAPTER
`2rl
`
`
`
`ENGINE
`DESIGN
`AND OPERATING
`PARAMETERS
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`21 IMPORTA NT ENGINE
`CHARACTERISTICS
`and the parameters com-
`metrical relationships
`In this chapter, some basic geo
`d. The factors impor-
`ation are develope
`monly used to characterize engine Opec
`tant to an engine user are:
`nee over its operitiing range
`
`1. The engine's perlorme
`
`2. The enyines fuel consumiplion within ing operating range and the cost of the
`required fuel
`aut emissions within this operating range
`3, The engine's noise wud air pollul
`allation
`4, The inihal cost of the exgine and its inst
`its maintenance requirements, and
`& The reliability and vinrability of (he engi,
`how these affect cng availability and operating costs
`-usiially the primary consider-
`otal engine operating COsts
`satisly environmental
`These factors control t
`, operation can
`ye UNer-—and whether the engine 1
`ith (he perlurmance, efficiency.
`wrian of Ul
`regulations, This book is concerned primarily w
`sion of the other factors listed
`and emissions characteastics of engines: the outs
`way, reduce their great importance.
`above does nol, Many
`
`42
`
`
`
`FORD Ex. 1125, page 17
`IPR2020-00013
`
`FORD Ex. 1125, page 17
` IPR2020-00013
`
`

`

`
`
`
`CHAPTER
`
`z
`
`ENGINE DESIGN AND OPERATING PARAMETERS
`
`43
`
`Engine performance is more precisely defined by
`
`1. The maximum power(or the maximum torque) available at each speed within
`the useful engine operating range
`2. The range of speed and power over which engine operation is satisfactory
`
`
`
`The following performance definitions are commonly used:
`
`ENGINE
`DESIGN
`)PERATING
`RAMETERS
`
`and the parameters com-
`eloped. The factors impor
`
`ig range and the cost of the
`
`‘in this operating range
`
`Maximum rated power. The highest power an engine is allowed to develop
`for short periods of operation.
`Normal rated power. The highest power an engine is allowed to develop in
`continuous operation.
`Rated speed. The crankshaft rotational speed at which rated poweris devel-
`
`oped.
`
`2.2 GEOMETRICAL PROPERTIES OF
`RECIPROCATING ENGINES
`
`The following parameters define the basic geometry of a reciprocating engine (see
`Fig. 2-1):
`
`Compressionratio r,:
`
`
`_ maximum cylinder volume _ Vj; + V,
`=
`=
`ve minimum cylinder volume
`V,
`where V, is the displaced or swept volumeand V, is the clearance volume.
`Ratio of cylinder bore to piston stroke:
`
`B
`Ry. =~
`‘bs
`L
`
`Ratio of connecting rod length to crank radius:
`i
`R=-
`a
`
`In addition, the stroke and crank radius are related by
`L=2a
`
`2.1
`(21)
`
`2.2
`
`)
`
`(
`
`(2.3)
`
`intenance requirements, and
`costs
`
`
`
`Typical values of these parameters are: r, = 8 to 12 for ST engines and r, = 12 to
`24 for CI engines; B/L = 0.8 to 1.2 for small- and medium-size engines, decreas-
`ing to about 0.5 for large slow-speed CI engines; R = 3 to 4 for small- and
`isually the primary considert-
`medium-size engines, increasing to 5 to 9 for large slow-speed CI engines.
`on can satisfy environmental
`The cylinder volume V at any crank position@is
`2
`the performance, efficiency,
`i.
`on of the other factors listed
`stance.
`
`yaVt = +a—s)
`
`(2.4)
`
`
`
`FORD Ex. 1125, page 18
`IPR2020-00013
`
`FORD Ex. 1125, page 18
` IPR2020-00013
`
`

`

`44
`
`INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE FUNDAMENTALS
`
`y—
`
`
`tod,
`
`FIGURE 2-1
`conmecting
`cylinder, piston.
`Geometry of
`and
`crankshaft where B= bore,
`= slroke,
`}—connecting road length, a = crank radius,=
`crank angle.
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`where s is the distance between the crank axis and the piston pin axis (Fig. 2-1),
`s=acos0+(2 —@ sin? 6)'/?
`(2.5)
`The ungle 0, defined as shownin Fig. 2-1, is called the crank angle. Equation (2.4)
`with the above definitions can be rearranged:
`1+4(r, — DIR + 1 — cos @ —(R? — sin’ oy?)
`(2.6)
`V
`V,
`y crank position 0 is given by
`The combustion chambersurface area Aatan
`(2.7)
`A= Ag t Ap + Bl + 2-5)
`surface area and A, is ile piston crown surface
`where A,, is the eylinder head = nB?/4. Using Eq.(2.5), Eq. (2-7) can be rear-
`area, For flat-topped pistons, A,
`ranged:
`A=Ag t+ Apt 7 [R + 1 —cos 0 — (R? — sin? 6)""")}
`eed is the mean piston speed S,:
`An important characteristic sp
`
`andis given by
`
`BL
`
`(2.8)
`
`(2.9)
`§, = 2LN
`ankshaft. Mean piston speed is often a
`where N is the rotational speed of the er
`
`FORD Ex. 1125, page 19
`IPR2020-00013
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`FORD Ex. 1125, page 19
` IPR2020-00013
`
`

`

`
`
`Se——eeeEeEeEeEeEyEEEEEEEeEeEeEeE—EeEeEeEe——E—E—————————|S
`
`ENGINE DESIGN AND OPERATING PARAMETERS
`
`45
`
` FIGURE2-2
`
`a)ie
`
`Crank angle, @
`
`180
`BC
`
`Instantaneous piston speed/mean piston speed
`asa function of crank angle for R = 3.5.
`
`connecting tod,
`der, piston,
`there B=bore, L= stroke,
`length, a = crank radius, @ =
`
`piston pin axis (Fig. 2-1),
`
`2
`
`(2.5)
`
`crank angle. Equation (2.4)
`
`— sin? 6)?
`
`(2.6)
`
`rank position 0 is given by
`s)
`(2.7)
`is the piston crown surface
`(2.5), Eq. (2-7) can be rear-
`
`R? — sin? 6)*7]
`
`(2.8)
`
`ston speed S,:
`
`(2.9)
`
`fean piston speed is often a
`
`more appropriate parameter than crank rotational speed for correlating engine
`behavior as a function of speed. For example, gas-flow velocities in the intake
`and the cylinderall scale with S,. The instantaneous piston velocity S, is obtained
`from
`
`ds
`Soh
`
`(2.10)
`
`The piston velocity is zero at the beginning of the stroke, reaches a maximum
`near the middle of the stroke, and decreases to zero at the end of the stroke.
`Differentiation of Eq. (2.5) and substitution gives
`
`5s, 290° [ + (R? = sin?
`cas @
`5S, _%..
`
`|
`
`Gi)
`
`Figure 2-2 shows how S, varies over each stroke for R = 3.5.
`Resistance to gas flow into the engine or stresses due to the inertia of the
`moving parts limit the maximum meanpiston speed to within the range 8 to 15
`m/s (1500 to 3000 ft/min). Automobile engines operate at the higher end ofthis
`range; the lower endis typical of large marine diesel engines.
`
`2.3. BRAKE TORQUE AND POWER
`Engine torque is normally measured with a dynamometer.’ The engine is
`clamped on a test bed and the shaft is connected to the dynamometer rotor,
`Figure 2-3 illustrates the operating principle of a dynamometer. The rotor is
`
`
`
`FORD Ex. 1125, page 20
`IPR2020-00013
`
`FORD Ex. 1125, page 20
` IPR2020-00013
`
`

`

`
`
`
`
`46
`
`INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE FUNDAMENTALS
`
`pare
`"Stator
`
`—
`
`™
`
`-
`
`/
`
`Force F
`
`©—
`
`\
`f _
`
`é
`N
`
`»
`
`7 cell
`
`FIGURE 2-3
`Schematic of principle of operation of dynamometer
`
`
`
`
`coupled electromaynelically, hydraulically, or by mechanical fielian fo a stilor,
`whieh is supported io low friction bearings. The stator is baluneed with the rotor
`stationary, The torque exerted on the stator wilh the rotor lirhing is measured
`by balancing the stator with weights, springs, or pueumatic means.
`Using the notation in Fig, 2-3, if the torque exerted by the engine 1s 1
`T = Fb
`(2.12)
`The power P delivered by the engine and absorbed by the dynamometeris the
`product of torque and angular speed:
`P =2nNT
`
`(2.134)
`
`where N is the crankshaft rotational speed. In SI units:
`P(kW) = 2nN(rev/s)T(N +m) x 107?
`
`(2.135)
`
`or in USS. units:
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`N(rev/min) T(1bf- ft)
`(hp)
`ar
`(2.130)
`P(hp) = ;
`
`
`Note that torque is a measure of an engine’s ability to do work; poweris the rate
`at which work is done.
`
`
`The value of engine power measured as described above is called brake
`power P,. This power is the usable power delivered by the engine to the load—in
`
`this case, a “ brake.”
`
`
` 2.4
`INDICATED WORK PER CYCLE
`
`
`Presstire data for
`the gas i the cylinder over (he opersbng eyele of the engine
`van be used 10 calculate the work dransfer from the gag (9 the piston. The evlin-
`
`
`der pressure and corresponding cylinder volume throughout the engine eyele can
`be plotted on a pel’ chagram as shown in Fig, 2-4. The idicated work per eycle
`Wt (per cylinder) is obtained by integrating wuround the curve to obtain the
`
`
`
`
`
`+ The term indicated is used because such p-V diagrams used to be generated directly with a device called an engine indicator.
`
`FORD Ex. 1125, page 21
`IPR2020-00013
`
`FORD Ex. 1125, page 21
` IPR2020-00013
`
`

`

`2-stroke
`
`4-stroke
`
`4-stroke
`
`ENGINE DESIGN AND OPERATING PARAMETERS
`
`47
`
`
`2
`v
`2g
`EVO4
`.
`2
`}
`
`\Blowdown
`8
`8
`8
`dO
`\
`5] Compression =,
`-
`Pye
`ee Py.ersansion
`
`
`
`3 3|Ivomn qz Igniior Pr : SE
`
`
`
`
`
`Exhaust = eZ
`3
`EO 10
`a
`C
`=
`a
`= Site aC
`3B] B~
`Sal
`:
`*
`
`* ee — tir
`B Iyatkey VC
`
`i ;
`'
`i
`eer genes
`TC
`Vol. BC
`TC Compression Yo], BC
`Tc Eye
`Vol, BC
`
`
`
`
`
`of operation of dynamometer
`
`yic