Reference
`Guide
`
`In-depth
`System
`Information
`
`red hat®
`
`Petitioners Microsoft Corporation and HP Inc. - Ex. 1014, p. Cover
`
`

`

`Red Hat Linux 6.1
`
`,
`
`lfh
`
`The Official Red Hat Linux Reference Guide
`
`Petitioners Microsoft Corporation and HP Inc. - Ex. 1014, p. i
`
`

`

`ISBN: 1-58569-020-1
`
`Red Hat, Inc.
`2600 Meridian Parkway Durham NC 27709 US 919-547-0012 1-888-733-4281 919-547-0024
`docs@redhat. corn 13588 Research Triangle Park NC 27713
`
`© 1999 Red Hat, Inc.
`
`RefGuide(EN)-3.0-Print-RHI (09/99)
`
`Red Hat is a registered trademark and the Red Hat Shadow Man logo, RPM, the RPM logo, and Glint
`are trademarks of Red Hat, Inc.
`
`Linux is a registered trademark of Linus Torvalds.
`
`Motif and UNIX are registered trademarks of T he Open Group.
`
`Alpha is a trademark of Digital Equipment Corporation.
`
`SPARC is a registered trademark of SPARC International, Inc. Products bearing the SPARC trademark
`are based on an architecture developed by Sun Microsystems, Inc.
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`Netscape is a registered trademark of Netscape Communications Corporation in the United States and
`other countries.
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`
`All other trademarks and copyrights referred to are the property of their respective owners.
`
`Copyright© 1999 by Red Hat, Inc .. T his material may be distributed only subject to the terms and con­
`ditions set forth in the Open Publication License, V0.4 or later (the latest version is presently available
`at http://www.opencontent.org/openpub/).
`
`Distribution of substantively modified versions of this document is prohibited without the explicit per­
`mission of the copyright holder.
`
`Distribution of the work or derivative of the work in any standard (paper) book form for commercial
`purposes is prohibited unless prior permission is obtained from the copyright holder.
`
`Printed in Canada, Ireland, and Japan
`
`Petitioners Microsoft Corporation and HP Inc. - Ex. 1014, p. ii
`
`ii
`
`

`

`Contents
`
`Red Hat Linux 6.1
`
`. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
`
`Introduction
`vii
`Welcome . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii
`Getting the Documentation That's Right for You........................................ vii
`More to Come . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xi
`Sign Up for Support ........................................................................ xi
`
`Part I System-Related Reference
`
`. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
`
`13
`
`Chapter 1
`1.1
`1.2
`1.3
`
`Red Hat Linux 6.1 New Features .......................... 15
`Installation-related Enhancements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
`System-Related New Features...................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
`Miscellaneous New Features.................................................... 16
`
`Chapter 2
`2.1
`2.2
`2.3
`2.4
`2.5
`2.6
`
`2.7
`2.8
`
`2.9
`2.10
`2.1 1
`2.1 2
`2.13
`2.14
`2.15
`
`System Administration .......................................... 19
`Filesystem Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
`Special Red Hat File Locations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
`Users, Groups and User-Private Groups ...................................... 23
`Configuring Console Access . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 8
`The floppy Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
`User Authentication with PAM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
`Shadow Utilities................................................................... 36
`Building a Custom Kernel............. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
`Sendmail .......................................................................... 4 2
`Controlling Access to Services.................................................. 44
`Anonymous FTP ................................ �................................. 44
`NFS Configuration........ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
`The Boot Process, I nit, and Shutdown . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . .. .. .. .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . 46
`Rescue Modes .................................................................... 61
`What is Rescue Mode? .......................................................... 61
`
`iii
`
`Petitioners Microsoft Corporation and HP Inc. - Ex. 1014, p. iii
`
`

`

`Chapter 3
`3.1
`
`3.2
`
`System Configuration............................................ 01
`System Configuration With Linuxconf ........................................... 67
`System Configuration with the Control Panel....... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
`
`Chapter 4
`4.1
`4.2
`4.3
`
`PowerTools .............................................................. 131
`PowerTools Packages............................................................ 137
`Installing PowerTools Packages................................................. 137
`If You're Not Running GNOME or KDE............................. . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
`
`Chapter 5
`5.1
`
`5.2
`5.3
`
`5.4
`
`Package Management with RPM .......................... 141
`RPM Design Goals............................................................... 141
`Using RPM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
`Impressing Your Friends with RPM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
`Other RPM Resources........................................................... 15 1
`
`Chapter 6
`6.1
`
`6.2
`
`6.3
`6.4
`6.5
`
`Gnome-RPM ............................................................ 153
`Starting Gnome-RPM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
`The Package Display............................................................. 156
`Installing New Packages. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
`Configuration...................................................................... 161
`Package Manipulation .......... ;................................................. 167
`
`Part II Installation-Related Reference....................................... 115
`
`Chapter7
`7.1
`
`Before You Begin .................................................... 111
`Things You Should Know . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
`
`Chapter 8
`
`8.1
`
`8.2
`
`8.3
`
`Installing Red Hat Linux with the Text Mode
`Installer ....................................................................... 185
`The Installation Program User Interface .. . .. .. .. .. . . . . . . . . . .. .. . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . 186
`Starting the Installation Program................................................ 189
`Choosing a Language............................................................ 191
`
`iv
`
`Petitioners Microsoft Corporation and HP Inc. - Ex. 1014, p. iv
`
`

`

`8.4
`8.5
`8.6
`8. 7
`8.8
`8.9
`8.10
`8.11
`8.12
`8.13
`8.14
`8.15
`8.16
`8.17
`8.18
`8.19
`8.20
`8.21
`8.22
`8.23
`8.24
`
`Selecting a Keyboard Type ...................................................... 19 1
`Selecting an Installation Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 2
`Identify Disk Partition to Install From ............................... -. . . . . . . . . . . . 19 4
`Installing over a Network...... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 5
`Welcome........................................................................... 19 9
`Upgrading or Installing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
`Partitioning Your Disk for Red Hat Linux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
`Installing LILO..................................................................... 217
`Naming Your Computer ..... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
`Configuring a Network Connection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
`Configuring Your Mouse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
`Configuring the Time Zone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
`Setting a Root Password......................................................... 229
`Creating a Login Account................ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
`Authentication Configuration ........................................ �........... 231
`Select Packages to Install ....................................................... 233
`Configuring your Video Adapter..................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
`Creating a Boot Diskette ......................................................... 239
`Package Installation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
`Configuring the X Window System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
`Finishing Up ....................................................................... 247
`
`Chapter 9
`9.1
`9.2
`9.3
`
`Kickstart Installations............................................ 249
`Where to Put A Kickstart File.... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
`Starting a Kickstart Installation .................................................. 251
`The Kickstart File . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
`
`Part Ill Appendixes....................................................................... 261
`
`Appendix A Red Hat Linux 6.1 Package List . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
`269
`Using the Package List After Installation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
`A.1
`Amusements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
`A.2
`Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
`A.3
`Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
`A.4
`
`Petitioners Microsoft Corporation and HP Inc. - Ex. 1014, p. v
`
`V
`
`

`

`A.5
`A.6
`A.7
`
`Documentation .................................................................... 361
`System Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370
`User Interface..................................................................... 413
`
`Appendix B General Parameters and Modules........................ 433
`A Note About Kernel Drivers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 433
`8.1
`8.2
`C D-ROM Module Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 434
`8.3
`SCSI parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 437
`Ethernet parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 443
`8.4
`
`Appendix C An Introduction to Disk Partitions
`453
`C.1
`Hard Disk Basic C oncepts....................................................... 453
`
`. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
`
`Appendix D Redundant Array of Independent Disks (RAID)
`479
`D.1
`What is RAID? .................................................................... 479
`
`.
`
`Petitioners Microsoft Corporation and HP Inc. - Ex. 1014, p. vi
`
`vi
`
`

`

`Section 0.2:Getting the Documentation That's Right for You
`
`vii
`
`Introduction
`
`Welcome
`
`Welcome to the Official Red Hat Linux Reference Guide.
`
`One of the newest publications from Red Hat, the Official Red Hat Linux Reference
`Guide contains useful information about your Red Hat Linux system. In fact, much
`of the information you'll find within can be extended to just about any Linux distri­
`bution. From fundamental concepts such as using RPM and Gnome-RPM to the finer
`points of using disk partitioning, we hope you' 11 find this book to be a valuable re­
`source.
`
`This guide is for you if you want to learn a bit more about how your Red Hat Linux
`system works. Among the featured entries, you'll learn about:
`•
`
`Partitioning concepts -- Both an introduction to disk partitions and the strategies
`behind "finding a home" for more than one operating system on hard drives.
`• Text mode installation -- Despite Red Hat Linux's GUI installation, you may
`want the control of a text mode install. Here's what you'll find, and what to
`expect.
`
`•
`
`•
`
`•
`
`RPM -- From both the Gnome-RPM front-end to using RPM at the console.
`
`RAID concepts -- Take one disk drive, add another, and another. . . Make them
`appear as a single logical unit, and you've got power and performance.
`
`Post-installation configuration -- Want to do a little tweaking after the installa-
`tion? Here's where you can get a start.
`
`Getting the Documentation That's Right for You
`
`While the Official Red Hat Linux Reference Guide digs into more of the nuts and bolts
`of your Red Hat Linux system, it is critical to make sure you have documentation that
`is appropriate to your level of Linux expertise. Regardless of your experience with
`Linux, it can be easy to feel overwhelmed without the right documentation.
`
`Petitioners Microsoft Corporation and HP Inc. - Ex. 1014, p. vii
`
`

`

`viii
`
`Introduction
`
`Let's take a look at three categories of people using Red Hat Linux, and try to be
`more explicit in terms of the documentation you'll need. Let's start by figuring out
`your experience level. Here are the three basic categories:
`
`New to Linux
`
`Has never used any Linux (or Linux-like) operating system before, or has had
`only limited exposure to Linux. May or may not have experience using other
`operating systems (such as Windows). Is this you? If so, please turn to Docu­
`mentation For First-Time Linux Users.
`
`Some Linux Experience
`
`Has installed and successfully used Linux (but not Red Hat Linux) before. Or,
`may have equivalent experience with other Linux-like operating systems. Does
`this describe you? If so, please turn to For the More Experienced.
`
`Old-1imer
`
`Has installed and sucessfully used Red Hat Linux before. Are you an old­
`timer? If so, please tum to Documentation for Linux Gurus.
`
`Documentation For First-Time Linux Users
`
`"A journey of a thousand miles begins with a single step." This old saying can be
`applied to learning about your Red Hat Linux system. Leaming to use a Linux system
`effectively can be a long, rewarding journey, in which you find that you can easily do
`things about which people with other operating systems can only dream. But like all
`journeys, you've got to start somewhere, and take that first step.
`
`First, get yourself some documentation! This cannot be stressed enough; without
`documentation you will only become frustrated at your inability to get your Red Hat
`Linux system working the way you want.
`
`Here's the sort of Linux documentation you should get your hands on:
`• A brief history of Linux -- Many aspects of Linux are the way they are because of
`historical precedent. There is also a Linux culture that, again, is based to a great
`deal on past history. A bit of knowledge about the history of Linux will serve
`
`Petitioners Microsoft Corporation and HP Inc. - Ex. 1014, p. viii
`
`

`

`Section 0.2:Getting the Documentation That's Right for You
`
`ix
`
`you well, particularly as you interact with more experienced Linux users on the
`Internet.
`
`•
`
`An explanation of how Linux works -- While it's not necessary to delve into
`the most arcane aspects of the Linux kernel, it's a good idea to know something
`about how Linux is put together. This is particularly important if you've been
`working with other operating systems; some of the assumptions you hold about
`how computers work may not transfer from that operating system to Linux. A few
`paragraphs that discuss how Linux works ( and particularly how it differs from the
`operating system you're used to) can be invaluable in getting off to a good start
`with your Red Hat Linux system.
`• An introductory command overview (with examples) -- This is probably the most
`important thing to look for in Linux documentation. The design philosophy be­
`hind Linux is that it's better to use many small commands connected together in
`different ways than it is to have a few large (and complex) commands that do the
`whole job themselves. Without some examples that illustrate the Linux approach
`to doing things, you will find yourself intimidated by the sheer number of com­
`mands available on your Red Hat Linux system.
`
`Here is some additional direction that may help to match all of your requirements:
`•
`
`Books -- Linux for Dummies, by John 11maddog" Hall, published by IDG; Using
`Linux, by William H. Ball, published by Que; Running Linux, by Matt Welsh and
`Lar Kaufman, published by O'Reilly & Associates; Red Hat Linux Secrets, by
`Naba Barkakati, published by IDG.
`
`•
`
`•
`
`Red Hat's website -- At our very own website (http://www.redhat.com), you'll
`find links to the Linux Documentation Project (LOP), the Official Red Hat Linux
`Installation Guide, the Official Red Hat Linux Getting Started Guide FAQs (Fre­
`quently Asked Questions), a database which can help you search for a Linux Users
`Group near you, a knowledgebase of information and more. In short, you'll find
`a wealth of information to help you get started.
`
`Newsgroups -- Linux users are second to none when it comes to helping new
`users understand Linux. You can find dozens of Linux-related newsgroups on the
`Usenet, but a quick search through Deja.com (http://www.deja.com) shows:
`
`Petitioners Microsoft Corporation and HP Inc. - Ex. 1014, p. ix
`
`

`

`X
`
`Introduction
`
`-
`
`linux.help
`
`linux.redhat
`
`-
`
`-
`
`linux.redhat.digest
`
`linux.redhat.misc
`
`linux.redhat.rpm
`
`Also, from the Deja.com website, you can frequently search for specific informa­
`tion from Linux newsgroups.
`
`Continue reading the next section to find out more about the kinds of documentation
`that will help you at that point.
`
`For the More Experienced
`
`If you've used other Linux distributions, you probably already have a basic grasp of
`the most frequently used commands. You may have installed your own Linux system,
`and maybe you've even downloaded and built software you found on the Internet.
`What sorts of information will you need?
`•
`
`Task-oriented items -- Many times, you will find that you would like to config­
`ure your Red Hat Linux system in a certain way, but you're not sure where to
`begin. In this case, it's often a big help to see what others in similar circum­
`stances have done. This is where the Linux Documentation Project (also known
`as the LDP) can come in handy. Each of their HOWTOs document a particular
`aspect of Linux, from low-level kernel esoterica, to using Linux for amateur radio
`station work.
`
`I f you selected one of the various HOWTO packages when you installed Red Hat
`Linux, you'll find the HOWTOs on your system in /usr /doc/HOWTO.
`
`Documentation for Linux Gurus
`
`If you're a long-time Red Hat Linux user, you probably already know that the fol­
`lowing pretty much says it all when it comes to documentation:
`
`Use the Force -- Read the source!
`
`Petitioners Microsoft Corporation and HP Inc. - Ex. 1014, p. x
`
`

`

`Section 0.4:Sign Up for Support
`
`xi
`
`There are times when you'll just have to sit there and look at the sources to understand
`things. Fortunately, because of the freely available nature of Linux, it's easy to get
`the sources. Now if it were only that easy to understand them ...
`
`More to Come
`
`The Official Red Hat Linux Reference Guide is part of the Red Hat's growing com­
`mitment to provide useful and timely support to Red Hat Linux users. Future editions
`will feature expanded information on system administration, console tools and other
`resources to help you extend the power of your Red Hat Linux system -- and yourself.
`
`That's also where you come in.
`
`Send in Your Feedback
`
`If you'd like to make suggestions about the Official Red Hat Linux Reference Guide,
`please mention this guide' s identifier:
`
`RefGuide(EN)-3.0-Print-RHI (09/99)
`
`You can send mail to:
`
`docs@redhat.com
`
`Sign Up for Support
`
`If you have an official edition of Red Hat Linux 6.1, please remember to sign up for
`the benefits you're entitled to as a Red Hat customer.
`
`You'll be entitled to any or all of the following benefits, depending upon the Official
`Red Hat Linux product you purchased:
`
`•
`
`Official Red Hat support -- Get help with your installation questions from Red
`Hat, Inc.' s support team.
`• Priority FTP access -- No more late-night visits to congested mirror sites. Own­
`ers of Red Hat Linux 6.1 receive free access to priority.redhat.com, Red Hat's
`preferred customer FTP service, offering high bandwidth connections day and
`night.
`
`Petitioners Microsoft Corporation and HP Inc. - Ex. 1014, p. xi
`
`

`

`xii
`
`Introduction
`
`•
`
`Red Hat Update Agent -- Receive e-mail directly from Red Hat as soon as updated
`RPMs are available. Use Update Agent filters to receive notification and quickly
`download updated packages about those subjects that interest you. Also receive
`-- automatically -- kernel updates, security updates and other packages.
`• Under the Brim: The Official Red Hat E-Newsletter -- Every month, get the latest
`news and product information directly from Red Hat.
`
`To sign up, go to http://www.redhat.com/now. You'll find your Personal Product
`ID on a red and white card in your Official Red Hat Linux box.
`
`To sign up, go to www.redhat.com/now. You '11 find your Personal Product ID on the
`red and white card in your Official Red Hat Linux box. To read more about technical
`support for Official Red Hat Linux, refer to the Appendix in the Official Red Hat
`Linux Installation Guide.
`
`Good luck, and thank you for choosing Red Hat Linux!!
`
`The Red Hat Documentation Team
`
`Petitioners Microsoft Corporation and HP Inc. - Ex. 1014, p. xii
`
`

`

`Section C.1 :Hard Disk Basic Concepts
`
`453
`
`C An Introduction to Disk Partitions
`Disk partitions are a standard part of the personal computer landscape, and have been
`for quite some time. However, with so many people purchasing computers featuring
`preinstalled operating systems, relatively few people understand how partitions work.
`This chapter attempts to explain how disk partitions work so you '11 find your Red Hat
`Linux installation is as simple as possible.
`If you're reasonably comfortable with disk partitions, you could skip ahead to Sec(cid:173)
`tion C.1 .4, Making Room For Red Hat Linux for more information on the process of
`freeing up disk space to prepare for a Red Hat Linux installation. This section also
`discusses the partition naming scheme used by Linux systems, sharing disk space
`with other operating systems, and related topics.
`
`C.1 Hard Disk Basic Concepts
`Hard disks perform a very simple function -- they store data and reliably retrieve it
`on command.
`
`When discussing issues such as disk partitioning, it's important to know a bit about
`the underlying hardware; unfortunately, it's easy to become bogged down in details.
`Therefore, let's use a simplified diagram of a disk drive to help us explain what goes
`on "under the hood." Figure C-1, An Unused Disk Drive shows a brand-new, unused
`disk drive.
`
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`Appendix C:An Introduction to Disk Partitions
`
`Figure C-1 An Unused Disk Drive
`
`Not much to look at, is it? But if we're talking about disk drives on a basic level,
`it will do. Let's say that we'd like to store some data on this drive. As things stand
`now, it won't work. There's something we need to do first. ..
`
`C.1.1 It's Not What You Write, it's How You Write It
`The old-timers in the audience probably got this one of the first try. We need to
`format the drive. Formatting (usually known as "making a filesystem" in Linux par(cid:173)
`lance) writes information to the drive, creating order out of the empty space in an
`unformatted drive.
`
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`Section C.1 :Hard Disk Basic Concepts
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`455
`
`Figure C-2 Disk Drive with a Fllesystem
`
`As Figure C-2, Disk Drive with a Filesystem implies, the order imposed by a filesys(cid:173)
`tem involves some tradeoffs:
`• A small percentage of the drive's available space is used to store filesystem-
`related data, and can be considered as overhead.
`• A filesystem splits the remaining space into small, consistently-sized segments.
`In the Linux world, these segments are known as inodes. 1
`Given that filesystems make things like directories and files possible, these tradeoff s
`are usually seen as a small price to pay.
`It's also worth noting that there is no single, universal filesystem; as Figure C-3,
`Disk Drive with a Different Filesystem shows, a disk drive may have one of many
`different filesystems written on it. As you might guess, different filesystems tend
`
`1 lnodes really are consistently sized, unlike our illustrations. Keep in mind, also, that an average disk drive
`contains thousands of inodes. But for the pUiposes of this discussion, please ignore these minor discrepancies.
`
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`Appendix C:An Introduction to Disk Partitions
`
`to be incompatible; that is, an operating system that supports one filesystem ( or a
`handful of related filesystem types) may not support another. This last statement
`is not a hard-and-fast rule, however. For example, Red Hat Linux supports a wide
`variety offilesystems (including many commonly used by other operating systems),
`making data interchange easy.
`Figure C-3 Disk Drive with a Different Fllesystem
`
`l[
`
`a
`
`I
`
`I
`
`l[ X
`
`•
`
`I
`
`Of course, writing a filesystem to disk is only the beginning. The goal of this process
`is to actually store and retrieve data. Let's take a look at our drive after some files
`have been written to it.
`
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`Section C.1:Hard Disk Basic Concepts
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`457
`
`Figure C-4 Disk Drive with Data Written to It
`
`As Figure C-4, Disk Drive with Data Written to ft shows, 14 of the previously-empty
`inodes are now holding data. We cannot determine how many files reside on this
`drive; it may be as few as one or as many as 14, as all files use as least one inode. An(cid:173)
`other important point to note is that the used inodes do not have to form a contiguous
`region; used and unused inodes may be interspersed. This is known as fragmenta(cid:173)
`tion. Fragmentation can play a part when attempting to resize an existing partition.
`As with most computer-related technologies, disk drives continued to change over
`time. In particular, they changed in one specific way -- they got bigger. Not bigger in
`size, but bigger in capacity. And it was this additional capacity that drove a change
`in the way disk drives were used.
`
`C.1.2 Partitions - Turning One Drive Into Many
`As disk drive capacities soared, some people started wondering if having all that space
`in one big chunk wasn ' t such a great idea. This line of thinking was driven by several
`
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`Appendix C:An Introduction to Disk Partitions
`
`issues, some philosophical, some technical. On the philosophical side, above a cer(cid:173)
`tain size, it seemed that the additional space provided by a larger drive created more
`clutter. On the technical side, some filesystems were never designed to support larger
`drives. Or the filesystems could support larger drives, but the overhead imposed by
`the filesystem became excessive.
`The solution to this problem was to divide disks into partitions. Each partition can be
`accessed as if it was a separate disk. This is done through the addition of a partition
`table.
`
`Please Note
`
`While the diagrams in this chapter show the partition table
`as being separate from the actual disk drive, this is not en(cid:173)
`tirely accurate. In reality, the partition table is stored at the
`very start of the disk, before any filesystem or user data. But
`for clarity, we'll keep it separate in our diagrams.
`
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`Section C.1 :Hard Disk Basic Concepts
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`459
`
`Figure c-5 Disk Drive with Partition Table
`
`11
`
`As Figure C-5, Disk Drive with Partition Table shows, the partition table is divided
`into four sections. Each section can hold the information necessary to define a single
`partition, meaning that the partition table can define no more than four partitions.
`Each partition table entry contains several important characteristics of the partition:
`• The points on the disk where the partition starts and ends;
`• Whether the partition is "active";
`• The partition• s type.
`Let's take a closer look at each of these characteristics. The starting and ending points
`actually define the partition's size and location on the disk. The "active" flag is used
`by some operating systems• boot loaders. In other words, the operating system in the
`partition that is marked "active" will be booted.
`The partition's type can be a bit confusing. The type is a number that identifies the
`partition's anticipated usage. If that statement sounds a bit vague, that's because the
`
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`
`meaning of the partition type is a bit vague. Some operating systems use the partition
`type to denote a specific filesystem type, to flag the partition as being associated
`with a particular operating system, to indicate that the partition contains a bootable
`operating system, or some combination of the three.
`Table C-1, Partition types contains a listing of some popular (and obscure) partition
`types, along with their numeric values.
`
`Table C-1 Partition types
`Partition Type
`Value
`Empty
`00
`DOS 12-bit FAT
`01
`XENIX root
`02
`XENIX usr
`03
`DOS 16-bit <=32M
`04
`Extended
`05
`DOS 16-bit >=32
`06
`OS/2 HPFS
`07
`AIX
`08
`AIX bootable
`09
`OS/2 Boot Manager
`0a
`Win95 FAT32
`Ob
`Win95 FAT32 (LBA)
`0c
`Win95 FAT16 (LBA)
`0e
`Win95 Extended (LBA)
`Of
`Venix 80286
`40
`Novell?
`51
`
`Partition Type
`Novell Netware 386
`PIC/IX
`Old MINIX
`Linux/MINUX
`Linux swap
`Linux native
`Linux extended
`Amoeba
`Amoeba BBT
`BSD/386
`OpenBSD
`NEXTSTEP
`BSDI fs
`BSDI swap
`Syrinx
`CP/M
`DOS access
`
`Value
`65
`75
`80
`81
`82
`83
`85
`93
`94
`a5
`a6
`a7
`b7
`b8
`c7
`db
`el
`
`Petitioners Microsoft Corporation and HP Inc. - Ex. 1014, p. 460
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`Section C.1 :Hard Disk Basic Concepts
`
`461
`
`Partition· Type
`Microport
`GNU HURD
`Novell Netware 286
`
`Value
`52
`63
`64
`
`Partition Type
`DOS R/O
`DOS secondary
`BBT
`
`Value
`e3
`t'2
`ff
`
`Now you might be wondering how all this additional complexity is nonnally used.
`See Figure C-6, Disk Drive With Single Partition for an example.