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`Energy-Efficient Technologies for the Dismounted Soldier
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`286 pages | 8.5 x 11 | PAPERBACK
`ISBN 978-0-309-05934-3 | DOI 10.17226/5905
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`CONTRIBUTORS
`Committee on Electric Power for the Dismounted Soldier, National Research
`Council
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`Energy-Efficient Technologies for the Dismounted Soldier
`
`i
`
`Energy-Efficient Technologies for
`the Dismounted Soldier
`
`Committee on Electric Power for the Dismounted Soldier
`Board on Army Science and Technology
`Commission on Engineering and Technical Systems
`National Research Council
`
`NATIONAL ACADEMY PRESS
`Washington, D.C. 1997
`
`Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.
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`Energy-Efficient Technologies for the Dismounted Soldier
`
`ii
`
`NOTICE: The project that is the subject of this report was approved by the Governing Board of the National Research Council, whose mem-
`bers are drawn from the councils of the National Academy of Sciences, the National Academy of Engineering, and the Institute of Medicine.
`The members of the committee responsible for the report were chosen for their special competencies and with regard for appropriate balance.
`This report has been reviewed by a group other than the authors according to procedures approved by a Report Review Committee con-
`sisting of members of the National Academy of Sciences, the National Academy of Engineering, and the Institute of Medicine.
`The National Academy of Sciences is a private, nonprofit, self-perpetuating society of distinguished scholars engaged in scientific and
`engineering research, dedicated to the furtherance of science and technology and to their use for the general welfare. Upon the authority of
`the charter granted to it by the Congress in 1863, the Academy has a mandate that requires it to advise the federal government on scientific
`and technical matters. Dr. Bruce Alberts is president of the National Academy of Sciences.
`The National Academy of Engineering was established in 1964, under the charter of the National Academy of Sciences, as a parallel
`organization of outstanding engineers. It is autonomous in its administration and in the selection of its members, sharing with the National
`Academy of Sciences the responsibility for advising the federal government. The National Academy of Engineering also sponsors engineer-
`ing programs aimed at meeting national needs, encourages education and research, and recognizes the superior achievements of engineers.
`Dr. William A. Wulf is interim president of the National Academy of Engineering.
`The Institute of Medicine was established in 1970 by the National Academy of Sciences to secure the services of eminent members of
`appropriate professions in the examination of policy matters pertaining to the health of the public. The Institute acts under the responsibility
`given to the National Academy of Sciences by its congressional charter to be an adviser to the federal government and, upon its own initia-
`tive, to identify issues of medical care, research, and education. Dr. Kenneth I. Shine is president of the Institute of Medicine.
`The National Research Council was organized by the National Academy of Sciences in 1916 to associate the broad community of sci-
`ence and technology with the Academy’s purposes of furthering knowledge and advising the federal government. Functioning in accordance
`with general policies determined by the Academy, the Council has become the principal operating agency of both the National Academy of
`Sciences and the National Academy of Engineering in providing services to the government, the public, and the scientific and engineering
`communities. The council is administered jointly by both Academies and the Institute of Medicine. Dr. Bruce M. Alberts and Dr. William A.
`Wulf are chairman and vice chairman, respectively, of the National Research Council.
`This is a report of work supported by Contract DAAM01-96-K-0002 between the U.S. Army Chemical and Biological Defense Com-
`mand, and the National Academy of Sciences. Any opinions, findings, conclusions, or recommendations expressed in this publication are
`those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the view of the organizations or agencies that provided support for the project.
`
`International Standard Book Number 0-309-05934-8
`
`Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 97-80862
`Limited copies are available from:
`Board on Army Science and Technology
`National Research Council
`2101 Constitution Avenue, N.W.
`Washington, DC 20418
`(202) 334-3118
`
`Additional copies are available for sale from: National Academy Press Box 285 2101 Constitution Ave., N.W. Washington, DC 20055
`800-624-6242 or 202-334-3313 (in the Washington Metropolitan Area)
`
`Copyright 1997 by the National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.
`
`Printed in the United States of America.
`
`Cover photo: Land Warrior, courtesy of Mr. Michael Doney, U.S. Army Project Manager-Soldier, Ft. Belvoir, Virginia.
`
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`Energy-Efficient Technologies for the Dismounted Soldier
`
`COMMITTEE ON ELECTRIC POWER FOR THE DISMOUNTED SOLDIER
`
`iii
`
`JOSEPH E. ROWE, Chair, University of Dayton Research Institute (retired), Dayton, Ohio
`JAMES D. MEINDL, Vice Chair, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta
`HAMILTON W. ARNOLD, Bell Communications Research, Inc., Red Bank, New Jersey
`ROBERT W. BRODERSEN, University of California, Berkeley
`ELTON J. CAIRNS, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, California
`PAUL G. CERJAN, Lockheed Martin Corporation, Arlington, Virginia
`WALTER L. DAVIS, Motorola, Inc., Austin, Texas
`CHARLES W. GWYN, Intel Corporation, Santa Clara, California
`DEBORAH J. JACKSON, Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, California
`MILLARD F. ROSE, Auburn University, Auburn, Alabama
`ALVIN J. SALKIND, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, Piscataway
`DANIEL P. SIEWIOREK, Carnegie-Mellon University, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
`NELSON R. SOLLENBERGER, AT&T Labs-Research, Holmdel, New Jersey
`WILLIAM F. WELDON, University of Texas, Austin
`NANCY K. WELKER, National Security Agency, Fort Meade, Maryland
`
`Board on Army Science and Technology Liaison
`
`CLARENCE G. THORNTON, Army Research Laboratories (retired)
`
`Staff
`
`ROBERT J. LOVE, Study Director
`DUNCAN M. BROWN, Technical Writer
`CECELIA L. RAY, Senior Project Assistant
`
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`Energy-Efficient Technologies for the Dismounted Soldier
`
`iv
`
`BOARD ON ARMY SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
`
`CHRISTOPHER C. GREEN Chair, General Motors Corporation, Warren, Michigan
`WILLIAM H. FORSTER, Vice Chair, Northrop Grumman Corporation, Baltimore, Maryland
`ROBERT A. BEAUDET, University of Southern California, Los Angeles
`GARY L. BORMAN, University of Wisconsin, Madison
`LAWRENCE J. DELANEY, Consultant, Potomac, Maryland
`MARY A. FOX, University of Texas, Austin
`ROBERT J. HEASTON, Guidance and Control Information Analysis Center (retired), Naperville, Illinois
`KATHRYN V. LOGAN, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta
`THOMAS L. McNAUGHER, The Arroyo Center, RAND Corporation, Washington, D.C.
`NORMAN F. PARKER, Varian Associates (retired), Cardiff by the Sea, California
`STEWART D. PERSONICK, Bell Communications Research, Inc., Morristown, New Jersey
`MILLARD F. ROSE, Auburn University, Auburn, Alabama
`HARVEY W. SCHADLER, General Electric Corporation, Schenectady, New York
`CLARENCE G. THORNTON, Army Research Laboratories (retired), Colts Neck, New Jersey
`JOHN D. VENABLES, Venables & Associates, Towson, Maryland
`ALLEN C. WARD, Ward Synthesis Inc., Ann Arbor, Michigan
`
`Staff
`
`BRUCE A. BRAUN, Director
`ROBERT J. LOVE, Study Director
`MARGO L. FRANCESCO, Administrative Associate
`ALVERA V. GIRCYS, Financial Associate
`CECELIA L. RAY, Senior Project Assistant
`
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`Energy-Efficient Technologies for the Dismounted Soldier
`
`PREFACE
`
`v
`
`Preface
`
`One of the critical problems facing soldiers on the battlefields of the twenty-first century will be the
`availability of sufficient electric power to support their needs in an information-rich environment that will
`require voice, data, and image transmissions over extended distances. In many instances, soldiers will have to
`function for extended periods of time, days or even weeks, totally detached from any supporting platform. This
`will require not only the continued development of battery cells, fuel cells, fueled systems, hybrids, and chargers
`but also the development of technologies that require less energy. There is no single or simple solution to the
`problem of providing adequate electric power to the dismounted soldier.
`This study examines all relevant technologies that might be used on the battlefield and considers the
`requirements for the Land Warrior Program as a starting point for assessing the energy needs of dismounted
`soldiers. Two time frames are considered: 2000 to 2015 (Force XXI and Land Warrior upgrades) and 2015 to
`2025 (the Army After Next).
`The task statement from the Deputy Assistant Secretary of the Army for Research and Technology
`requested that the National Research Council, through the Board of Army Science and Technology of the
`Commission on Engineering and Technical Systems, carry out a study addressing multidisciplinary approaches
`to working within the power limitations of the dismounted soldier on future battlefields. The study included the
`following tasks:
`
`• meet with the Army and the Army research community to determine the basic requirements underlying
`the demand and consumption of electric power by the dismounted soldier on post-digitization battlefields
`identify technologies applicable to the availability and consumption of electric power, including
`technologies that may have been overlooked in previous studies (that considered only energy storage
`and delivery)
`
`•
`
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`Energy-Efficient Technologies for the Dismounted Soldier
`
`PREFACE
`
`vi
`
`• provide an integrated assessment of the state of the art in the applicable technology areas and an
`assessment of commercial research and development capabilities and the likelihood that they will meet
`Army requirements
`• develop advanced concepts for optimizing the availability and consumption of electric power for the
`dismounted soldier (consider the net gains that could be realized through low power electronics, C4I
`systems design and application, and advances in information technology or doctrine).
`• develop strategic research objectives and a conceptual plan to guide the Army in light of what the
`scientific and industrial community at large is likely to accomplish.
`
`Participants in the study were selected from many disciplines in anticipation of the broad array of
`technologies that needed to be addressed. From the outset, it was noted that the National Research Council was
`not tasked to identify or describe the evolution of new systems; rather, it was charged to identify and assess
`technologies likely to affect soldier energy needs in the future. The Army was called upon to describe its
`requirements and the role of dismounted soldiers in both near- and far-terms, and the NRC relied upon experts in
`technology development to describe advanced energy concepts.
`A study plan was developed to respond to each element of the task statement. Meetings with the Army and
`other agencies were held at locations central to subject matter experts. The National Research Council in
`Washington, D.C. was the site of five meetings. The U.S. Army Communications-Electronics Command
`Research, Development and Engineering Center at Fort Monmouth, New Jersey, hosted two fact-finding
`sessions. The Motorola Government Systems Group in Scottsdale, Arizona, hosted a third fact-finding session.
`Specific presentations are listed in Appendix A.
`The study committee formed four panels to assess different technology areas and to develop advanced
`concepts for power. The Energy Sources and Systems Panel focused on the supply side; the other three panels
`(Networks, Protocols and Operations; Communications, Computers, Displays and Sensors; and Low Power
`Electronics and Design) focused on technologies with the potential to reduce demand. After each panel made its
`assessment, the findings were integrated into a cohesive assessment of possibilities for the time frames
`represented by Force XXI and the more distant Army After Next. Frequent communication among participants to
`resolve differences of opinion were facilitated by electronic mail and teleconferencing. Army staff members at
`all locations were very helpful in providing critical information.
`Joseph E. Rowe, Chair
`Committee on Electric Power for the Dismounted Soldier
`
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`Energy-Efficient Technologies for the Dismounted Soldier
`
`CONTENTS
`
`Contents
`
`
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`
` EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
`
`1
`
`
`
`
`
`
`INTRODUCTION
`Applicable Technology Areas
`Study Approach
`Report Organization
`Assumptions
`Superiority through Technology
`
`2 REQUIREMENTS AND NEEDS
`
`Impact of Digitization
`
`Operational Factors
`
`The Army After Next
`
`Findings
`
`3 ENERGY SOURCES AND SYSTEMS
`
`Alternative Technologies
`
`Rechargeable Batteries
`
`Fueled Systems
`
`Nuclear Energy Sources
`
`Human-Powered Systems
`
`Photovoltaic Technology
`
`Thermophotovoltaics
`
`Electrochemical Capacitors
`
`Hybrid Systems
`
`Power for Microclimate Cooling
`
`Technology Forecast
`
`Key Research Issues
`
`Findings
`
`vii
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`1
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`
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`Energy-Efficient Technologies for the Dismounted Soldier
`
`CONTENTS
`
`4 LOW POWER ELECTRONICS AND DESIGN
`Design Requirements
`Digital Guidelines
`System Architecture
`Analog and Radio Frequency Design
`Examples of Circuit Design
`Design Aids for Low Power Integrated Circuits
`Behavioral and Architectural Level Design
`Logic Level Design
`Circuit Level Design
`Physical Level Design
`Meeting Unique Army Requirements
`Industry Trends
`Purpose
`Challenges
`Military and Commercial Synergy
`Theoretical Limits on Low Power Electronics
`Industry Consensus
`Centers for Low Power Electronics
`International Symposium on Low Power Electronics and Design
`DARPA Low Power Electronics Program
`Findings
`
`5 COMMUNICATIONS, COMPUTERS, DISPLAYS, AND SENSORS
`Trends in Designing Commercial Portable Equipment
`Communications
`Power Objectives
`Transmitter Energy Consumption
`Computers
`Land Warrior Computer
`General-Purpose Computing Trends
`Customized and General-Purpose Architectures
`User Interfaces
`Displays
`Requirements
`Current and Future Technology
`Future Research and Development
`Sensors
`Microelectromechanical Systems
`Infrared Sensor Arrays
`Temperature Stabilization
`Ultra Low Power Electronics for the Sensor Interface
`Laser Detectors
`Laser Rangefinders and Infrared Pointer Technology
`
`viii
`
`46
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`102
`104
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`Energy-Efficient Technologies for the Dismounted Soldier
`
`CONTENTS
`
`Laser Rangefinder
`Infrared Pointer
`Global Positioning System
`Wireless Communication Interfaces
`Findings
`Communications
`Computing
`Displays and Sensors
`
`6 NETWORKS, PROTOCOLS, AND OPERATIONS
`Wireless Transmission Techniques and Limitations
`Land Warrior System
`Networks and Protocols
`Hybrid "Virtual" Peer-to-Peer Network Architecture
`Multihop Network Architectures
`Selecting a Suitable Commercial Technology
`Network Architectures above the Soldier Level
`Nonterrestrial Systems and Architectures
`Mobile Satellite Systems
`Direct Broadcast Satellite Systems and Architectures
`Unmanned Aerial Vehicle Systems and Architectures
`Operational Considerations
`Findings
`
`7 ADVANCED CONCEPTS
`Comparing Land Warrior with Commercial Technology
`Compact Energy Sources
`Commercial Electronic Systems
`The Crisis
`Using Commercial Technology in the Land Warrior System
`Computer
`Displays and Sensors
`Radio Communications
`Designing a System for Low Energy Consumption
`Energy Requirements for Analog Processing and Analog Devices
`Energy Requirements for Digital Computation
`Energy Requirements for Data Transmission
`Paradigm Shifts
`Energy Strategy
`System Design
`Use of Commercial Technology
`
`ix
`
`104
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`146
`147
`147
`
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`Energy-Efficient Technologies for the Dismounted Soldier
`
`CONTENTS
`
`8 RESEARCH OBJECTIVES
`Energy Sources and Systems
`Rechargeable Batteries
`Fuel Cells
`Advanced Fueled Systems
`Human-Powered Systems
`Low Power Electronics and Design
`Circuit Design Tools for Minimizing Power Requirements
`Architectural Design Level Tools
`Packaging Techniques for Minimizing Interconnects
`Lithography
`Optimizing Device Design
`Design Methodologies for Army "Systems on a Chip"
`Communications, Computers, Displays, and Sensors
`Terminal Equipment Architectures for Optimizing Energy Consumption
`Component and Human-Computer Interfaces
`Ultra Low Power Displays and Sensors
`Multimodal and Adaptive Communication Circuits
`Evolution of Hardware and Software
`Networks, Protocols, and Operations
`Wireless Battlefield Communications Network
`Extending the Range of the Dismounted Soldier
`Sensors and Software for Power Management
`Models for Optimizing Energy Efficiency
`Propagation Characteristics and Antenna Design
`Implementation Guidelines
`Wireless Battlefield Communications Network
`Models for Optimizing Energy Efficiency
`Advanced Fueled Systems
`Findings
`
`
`
`
`
`9 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
`
` REFERENCES
`
` APPENDICES
`A
`Meetings and Activities
`B
`Sample Estimate of Operational Requirements for Land Warrior
`C
`Energy Source Technologies
`D
`Future Directions for Low Power Electronics
`E
`Wearable Speech-Operated Computer
`
`x
`
`149
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`187
`248
`263
`
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`

`Energy-Efficient Technologies for the Dismounted Soldier
`
`FIGURES AND TABLES
`
`Figures and Tables
`
`Figures
`ES-1 Land Warrior subsystems
`1-1 U.S. Army Land Warrior
`1-2 Organizational structure of an infantry squad
`1-3 Energy train
`2-1 Requirement categories of the soldier system
`2-2 Land Warrior subsystems
`2-3 Model for introducing technology and digitizing the battlefield
`3-1 Specific energy and specific power for various energy storage media
`3-2 Graph showing the ''crossover" points for battery and fuel cell power systems as functions of
`available energy and system mass
`5-1 Complexity of microprocessors by year of introduction
`5-2 Complexity of cellular phones and pagers by year of introduction
`5-3 Operating frequency of high-end microprocessors used in desk-top computers by year of intro-
`duction
`Improvement in the speed-power characteristic of integrated circuit processes by year of intro-
`duction
`5-5 Power drain versus performance for microprocessors used in desk-top computers from 1989 to
`1993
`5-6 Power drain characteristics of recent microprocessors
`5-7 Performance of general-purpose programmable DSP by year of introduction
`5-8 Basic complementary gate structure
`5-9 Power savings of low-voltage logic operation
`5-10 Power distribution used in portable products
`5-11 Power dissipation due to system interconnections
`5-12 Radio frequency power required for reliable communications
`5-13 Computer system attributes
`5-14 Functions of the multimedia terminal, including the interface to a high speed wireless link
`5-15
`I/O device interfaces
`
`5-4
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`79
`83
`86
`87
`
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`

`Energy-Efficient Technologies for the Dismounted Soldier
`
`FIGURES AND TABLES
`
`xii
`
` 188
` 202
` 203
`
` 205
` 206
` 212
` 214
`
`
`5-16 Block diagram of a display and associated electronics iinterface
`92
`
`5-17 Block diagram of a generic imaging array
`99
` 103
`5-18 Soldier's vest and helmet with laser detectors
` 118
`6-1 Hierarchical wireless system architecture used by commercial PCSs and cellular systems
` 119
`6-2 Peer-to-peer (nonhierarchical) wireless system architecture representative of Land Warrior
` 120
`6-3 Time-slotted alerting scheme used by commercial cellular systems, PCSs, and paging systems
`6-4 Simplified push-to talk access protocol used by SINCGARS and other military wireless systems 121
`7-1 Projected MIPS/W performance of microprocessors and programmable digital signal proces-
` 134
`sors over time
`C-1 Chronological improvements in the capacity of AA size nickel batteries
`C-2 Projected performance of 50 W hydrogen PEMFCs with a variety of fuel storage techniques
`C-3 Graph showing the crossover points for battery and fuel cell power systems as functions of
`available energy and system mass
`C-4 State of the art of hydrogen PEMFCs
`C-5 State of the art of DMFCs
`C-6 System mass as a function of available energy
`C-7 Available energy as a function of power system mass for a thermoelectric power generator
`fueled by battlefield fuel
`C-8 Schematic drawing of an alkali-metal thermal-to-electrical converter (AMTEC)
`C-9 Estimated performance of an AMTEC system
`C-10 Schematic drawing illustrating the principles of thermophotovoltaic (TPV) power systems
`C-11 Estimated thermophotovoltaic (TPV) system mass as a function of mission energy for point
`designs currently funded by DARPA
`C-12 Schematic representation of a particle bed CDL
`C-13 Typical power-time profile for pulsed digital communications devices
`D-1
`Interconnect length distribution density function: interconnect length distribution density ver-
`sus interconnect length
`D-2 Average power transfer per binary switching position, P, versus transition time, td
`D-3 Number of transistors per chip, Ntr, versus calendar year, Y
`D-4 Number of interconnect elements per chip, Nint, versus calendar year, Y
`E-1 Composite performance of speech-operated systems
`E-2
`Impact of power management on wearable computers
`
` 215
` 216
` 227
` 229
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` 232
` 241
` 255
`
` 256
` 258
` 259
` 263
` 265
`
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`

`Energy-Efficient Technologies for the Dismounted Soldier
`
`FIGURES AND TABLES
`
`Tables
`ES-1 Research Objectives
`2-1 Power Requirements for the Land Warrior System
`3-1 Technology Summary of Energy Systems
`4-1 Semiconductor Product Characteristics
`4-2 Semiconductor Product Technology
`4-3 Semiconductor Package Characteristics
`5-1 Power Requirements of the Land Warrior System by Function
`5-2 Power Requirements of the Land Warrior Computer
`5-3 Capacity and Performance of Computer Systems
`5-4 Comparison of the Number of Steps Required to Retrieve Information Using Selection Buttons
`and Speech
`5-5 Ease-of-Use Metrics
`5-6 Computational Requirements to Support Various User Interfaces
`5-7 Radiated Energy Captured by the Viewer
`5-8 Land Warrior Sensor Suite Power Requirements
`5-9
`Integrated Sight Module (ISM) Power Requirements
`5-10
`Integrated Helmet Assembly Subsystem (IHAS) Power Requirements
`5-11 GPS Power Requirements
`5-12 Performance Characteristics of the BodyLAN
`6-1 Required Transmission Rates
`6-2 Transmitter Power Needed to Maintain 16-Kilobit-Per-Second Link at 75 MHz
`6-3 Transmitter Power Needed to Maintain 16-Kilobit-Per-Second Link at 1.5 GHz
`6-4 PCS Technologies Used in the United States
`7-1 Estimated Power Requirements for the Land Warrior System
`7-2 Comparison of Power Requirements for the Land Warrior System and Notional Dismounted
`Soldier Systems
`7-3 Assumptions Used to Derive Power Requirements in Table 7-2
`7-4 Number of Bits Required to Transmit a Situation Report by Different Modalities
`8-1 Research Objectives
`B-1 Power and Energy Requirements of the Land Warrior System
`B-2 Attack Mission Profile for the Laser Rangefinder
`B-3 Wartime Operational Mode Summary for the Laser Rangefinder
`C-1 Summary of Primary Battery Data
`C-2 Summary of Rechargeable Portable Battery Data
`C-3 Summary of Data on Reserve, Thermal, and High Temperature Batteries
`C-4 Nickel Metal Hydride Battery Systems
`C-5 Rechargeable Alkaline Manganese Dioxide (RAM) Battery Systems
`
`xiii
`
`7
`22
`31
`55
`56
`58
`66
`80
`82
`88
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`89
`
`89
`
`94
`
`95
`
`96
`
`97
` 108
` 110
` 113
` 115
` 116
` 124
` 133
` 136
`
` 138
` 145
` 161
` 185
` 186
` 186
` 189
` 190
` 192
` 193
` 194
`
`Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.
`
`IPR2020-00783
`Philips North America LLC EX2031
`
`

`

`Energy-Efficient Technologies for the Dismounted Soldier
`
`FIGURES AND TABLES
`
`C-6 Nickel Zinc (NiZn) Battery Systems
`C-7 Lithium Batteries with Lithium Metal Anode Structures
`C-8 Lithium Batteries with Lithium Intercalated Anode Structures
`C-9 Lithium Batteries with Lithium Alloy Anode Structures
`C-10 Lithium Batteries with Liquid Organic Electrolytes
`C-11 Lithium Batteries with Polymer Gel Electrolytes
`C-12 Lithium Batteries with Lithium Manganese Dioxide Spinel (LixMn2O4) Cathode Structures
`C-13 Lithium Batteries with Lithium Nickel Dioxide (LixNiO2) Cathode Structures
`C-14 Lithium Batteries Using Lithium Cobalt Dioxide (LixCoCO2) Cathode Structures
`C-15 Battery Systems Not Appropriate for the Dismounted Soldier
`C-16 Specific Energies of Various Fuels
`C-17
`Internal and External Combustion Engines
`C-18 Weight Comparisons of 50-W Heat Engine Alternatives
`C-19 Power Levels Required for Some Common Human Activities
`C-20 Estimates of the Maximum Power Available for Conversion to Electricity from Several Body
`Sources
`C-21 Summary of Photovoltaic Technology
`C-22 Summary of Electrochemical Capacitor Technology
`C-23 Most Promising Component Technologies for Hybrid Systems
`C-24 High Specific Power Batteries for Hybrid Systems
`C-25 Commercial and Developmental High Specific Energy-Batteries as Energy Sources in Hybrid
`Systems
`C-26 Potential Fueled Systems for Hybrid Power Systems
`C-27 Energy Storage Media That Could Be Used in Hybrid Systems
`C-28 Technology Summary of Energy Systems
`
`xiv
`
` 194
` 195
` 196
` 196
` 197
` 197
` 198
` 198
` 199
` 199
` 208
` 210
` 211
` 220
` 221
`
` 223
` 237
` 238
` 239
` 239
`
` 240
` 242
` 244
`
`Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.
`
`IPR2020-00783
`Philips North America LLC EX2031
`
`

`

`Energy-Efficient Technologies for the Dismounted Soldier
`
`ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS
`
`xv
`
`Acronyms and Abbreviations
`
`ACRONYMS
`
`A/D
`AAN
`ACTD
`AMC
`AMCLD
`AMEL
`AMPS
`AMTEC
`APS
`APU
`ARL
`ARO
`ASIC
`AWE
`BSF
`BSR
`C4I
`CAD
`CCD
`CDL
`CDMA
`CFM
`ChLCD
`CIS
`CISC
`CMOS
`COTS
`CPU
`CRT
`
`analog to digital
`Army After Next
`advanced concept technology demonstrations
`Army Materiel Command
`active matrix liquid crystal display
`active matrix electroluminescent display
`advanced mobile phone system
`alkali-metal-thermal-to electrical converter
`active pixel sensor
`auxiliary power unit
`Army Research Laboratory
`Army Research Office
`application-specific integrated circuits
`advanced warfighting experiment
`back surface fields
`back surface reflectors
`Command, Control, Communications, Computers, and Intelligence
`computer-aided design
`charge coupled device
`chemical double layer
`code division multiple access
`contamination-free manufacturing
`cholestric liquid crystal display
`copper indium diselenide
`complete instruction set computer
`complementary metal-oxide semiconductor
`commercial off-the-shelf
`central processing unit
`cathode ray tube
`
`Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.
`
`IPR2020-00783
`Philips North America LLC EX2031
`
`

`

`Energy-Efficient Technologies for the Dismounted Soldier
`
`ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS
`
`xvi
`
`DARPA
`DBS
`DC
`DIICOE
`DMFC
`DoD
`DoE
`DRAM
`DSP
`DVO
`ESR
`EPR
`FDD
`FET
`FM
`GPHS-RTG
`GPS
`GSI
`GSM
`GSO
`HDTV
`HF
`I/O
`IC
`IEEE
`IF
`IHAS
`IR
`IS-54, -95
`ISM
`LAN
`LCD
`LED
`LEO
`LPD
`LPI
`MEMS
`MOD-RTG
`
`Defense Advanced Research Products Agency
`direct broadcast satellite
`direct current
`Defense Information Infrastructure Common Operating Environment
`direct methanol fuel cell
`U.S. Department of Defense
`U.S. Department of Energy
`dynamic random access memory
`digital signal processor
`direct view optic
`equivalent series resistance
`equivalent parallel resistance
`frequency division duplex
`field effect transistor
`frequency modulation
`general-purpose heat source-radioisotope thermal generator
`global positioning system
`gigascale integration
`Global System for Mobile Communications
`geosynchronous orbit
`high-definition television
`high frequency
`input/output
`integrated circuit
`Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
`intermediate frequency
`integrated helmet assembly subsystem
`infrared
`Interim Standard (Telecommunications Industry Association)
`integrated sight module
`local area network
`liquid crystal display
`light emitting diode
`low earth orbit
`low probability of detection
`low probability of intercept
`microelectromechanical systems
`modified radioisotope thermal generator
`
`Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.
`
`IPR2020-00783
`Philips North America LLC EX2031
`
`

`

`Energy-Efficient Technologies for the Dismounted Soldier
`
`ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS
`
`xvii
`
`MOSFET
`MOUT
`MPEG2
`Nd:YLF
`NMOS
`NRC
`NTRS
`OMS
`PACS
`PAFC
`PACS-UB
`PC
`PCMCIA
`PCS
`PDA
`PEMFC
`PMOS
`QPSK
`R&D
`RAM
`RDEC
`RF
`RIPD
`SIA
`SINCGARS
`SNR
`SOI
`SRAM
`SSCOM
`TCAD
`TCIM
`TDD
`TDMA
`TEC
`TPV
`TRADOC
`TSI
`
`metal-oxide semiconductor field effect transistor
`military operations in urban terrain
`Motion Picture Experts Group
`neodymium: yttrium lithium fluoride
`N-type metal-oxide semiconductor
`National Research Council
`National Technology Roadmap for Semiconductors
`operational mode summary
`personal access communications systems
`phosphoric acid fuel cell
`PACS unlicensed B version
`personal computer
`Personal Computer Memory Card International Association
`personal communications systems
`personal digital assistant
`proton exchange membrane fuel cell
`P-type metal-oxide semiconductor
`quadrature phase shift keying
`research and development
`random access memory
`Research, Development and Engineering Center
`radio frequency
`remote input pointing/positioning device
`Semiconductor Industry Association
`Single Channel Ground and Airborne Radio System
`signal-to-noise ratio
`silicon on insulator
`static random access memory
`Soldier Systems Command
`technology computer-aided-design
`tactical communications interface module
`time division duplex
`time division multiple access
`thermoelectric cooler
`thermophotovoltaics
`Training and Doctrine Command
`terascale integration
`
`Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.
`
`IPR2020-00783
`Philips North America LLC EX2031
`
`

`

`Energy-Efficient Technologies for the Dismounted Soldier
`
`ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS
`
`xviii
`
`UAV
`ULPE
`VHF
`VRD
`
`µ
`µm
`µW
`A
`Ah
`C
`cm
`cm2
`cm3
`dB
`F
`g
`GHz
`Hz
`in3
`J
`K
`kb
`kbps
`kHz
`km
`kW
`kWh
`l
`
`unmanned aerial vehicle
`ultra-low power electronics
`very high frequency
`virtual retinal display
`
`ABBREVIATIONS
`
`micro
`micrometer
`microwatt
`ampere
`ampere hour
`centigrade
`centimeter
`square centimeter
`cubic centimeter
`decibel
`farad
`gram
`gigahertz
`Hertz
`cubic inches
`joule
`Kelvin
`kilobit
`kilobits per second
`kilohertz
`kilometer
`kilowatt
`kilowatt-hour
`liter
`
`Cop