Internal
`
`Combustion Engine
`Fundamentals
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`4
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`eeveeee
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`IPR2019-01400
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`John B. Heywood
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`INTERNAL COMBUSTION
`ENGINE FUNDAMENTALS
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`McGraw-Hill Series in Mechanical Engineering
`
`Jack P. Holman, Southern Methodist University
`Consulting Editor
`
`Anderson: Modern Compressible Flow: With Historical Perspective
`Dieter: Engineering Design: A Materials and Processing Approach
`Eckert and Drake: Analysis of Heat and Mass Transfer
`Heywood: Internal Combustion Engine Fundamentais
`Hinze: Turbulence, 2/e
`Hutton: Applied Mechanical Vibrations
`Juvinall: Engineering Considerations af Stress, Strain, and Strength.
`Kane and Levinson: Dynamics: Theory and Applications
`Kays and Crawford: Convective Heat and Mass Transfer
`Martin: Kinematics and Dynamics of Machines
`Phelan: Dynamics of Machinery
`Phelan: Fundamentals of Mechanical Design, 3/e
`Pierce: Acoustics: An Introduction to Its Physical Principles and Applications
`Raven: Automatic Control Engineering, 4/e
`Rosenberg and Karnopp: ntroduction to Physics
`Schlichting: Boundary-Layer Theory, 7/e
`Shames: Mechanics of Fluids, 2/e
`Shigley: Kinematic Analysis of Mechanisms, 2/e
`Shigley and Mitchell: Mechanical Engineering Design, 4/e
`Shigley and Vicker: Theory of Machines and Mechanisms
`Stoecker and Jones: Refrigeration and Air Conditioning, 2/e
`Vanderplaats: Nwnerical Optimization Techniques for Engineering Design:
`With Applications
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`
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`
`
`INTERNAL
`COMBUSTION
`ENGINE
`FUNDAMENTALS
`
`John B. Heywood
`Professor af Mechanical Engineering
`Director, Sloan Automotive Laboratory
`Massachusetts Institute of Technology
`
`2elive
`sach
`
`ngth
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`d Applications
`
`ng Design:
`
`McGraw-Hill, Inc.
`New York St.Louis San Francisco Auckland Bogotd
`Caracas Lisbon London Madrid Mexico Milan
`Montreal New Delhi Paris San Juan Singapore
`Sydney Tokyo Toronto
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`INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE FUNDAMENTALS
`
`This book was set in Times Roman.
`Theeditors were Anne Duffy and John M. Morriss; the designer
`was Joan E. O'Connor; the production supervisor was
`Denise L. Puryear. New drawings were done by ANCO.
`Project Supervision was done by Santype International Ltd.
`R. R. Donnelley & Sons Companywasprinter and binder.
`
`See acknowledgements on page xxi.
`
`Copyright © 1988 by McGraw-Hill, Inc. All rights reserved.
`Printed in the United States of America. Except as permitted under the
`United States Copyright Act of 1976, no part of this publication may be
`reproduced or distributed in any form omy any means,or stored in a data
`base or retrieval system, without the prior written permission
`of the publisher.
`
`7890 DOCDOC 93
`
`ISBN Q-0?-024b3?-X
`
`Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
`Heywood, John B.
`Internal combustion engine fundamentals.
`(McGraw-Hill series in mechanical engineering)
`Bibliography: p.
`Includes index.
`i
`i
`1. Internal combustion engines.
`TI755.H45
`1988
`621.43
`
`i
`I. Title.
`8715251
`
`i
`II. Series.
`
`:
`
`Dr. John B. Heywood
`the Massachusetts Inst
`doctoral year of resear
`an
`i
`ratin
`Electricity Generating
`hydrodynamic power5
`is Professor of Mechz
`Automotive Laborator
`Division of the Mech
`Energy Program Direc
`to the MIT Sports Car
`Professor Heywoo
`modynaimics, combust
`decades, his research a
`fuels requirements of
`been on computer mc
`sions of spark-ignitic
`experiments to develo
`technology assessmen
`mobile fuel utilization
`the automotive and pe
`His extensive rese
`Army, Department
`Nationa! Science Fou
`petroleum companies.
`
`
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`
`
`ABOUT THE AUTHOR
`
`the
`y be
`a data
`
`Dr. John B. Heywood received the Ph.D. degree in mechanical engineering from
`the Massachusetts [nstitute of Technology in 1965. Following an additional post-
`doctoral year of research at MIT, he worked as a research officer at the Central
`Electricity Generating Board’s Research Laboratory in England on magneto-
`hydrodynamic power generation. In 1968 he joined the faculty at MIT where he
`is Professor of Mechanical Engineering. At MIT he is Director of the Sloan
`Automotive Laboratory. He is currently Head of the Fluid and Thermal Science
`Division of the Mechanical Engineering Department, and the Transportation
`Energy Program Director in the MIT Energy Laboratory. Heis faculty advisor
`to the MIT Sports Car Club.
`Professor Heywood’s teaching and research interests lie in the areas of ther-
`modynamics, combustion, energy, power, and propulsion. During the past two
`decades, his research activities have centered on the operating characteristics and
`fuels requirements of automotive and aircraft engines. A major emphasis has
`been on computer models which predict the performance, efficiency, and emis-
`sions of spark-ignition, diesel, and gas turbine engines, and in carrying out
`experiments to develop and validate these models. Heis also actively involved in
`technology assessments and policy studies related to automotive engines, auto-
`mobile fuel utilization, and the control of air pollution. He consults frequently in
`the automotive and petroleum industries, and for the U.S. Government.
`His extensive research in the field of engines has been supported by the U.S.
`Army, Department of Energy, Environmental Protection Agency, NASA,
`National Science Foundation, automobile and diesel engine manufacturers, and
`petroleum companies. He has presented or published over a hundred papers on
`
`¥
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`
`
` vi
`
`
`
`ABOUT THE AUTHOR
`
`
`
`his research in technical conferences and journals. He has co-authored two pre-
`vious books: Open-Cycle MHD Power Generation published by Pergamon Press
`in 1969 and The Automobile and the Regulation of Its Impact on the Environment
`published by University of Oklahoma Press in 1975.
`He is a memberof the American Society of Mechanical Engineers, an associ-
`ate fellow of the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, a fellow of
`the British Institution of Mechanical Engineers, and in 1982 was elected a Fellow
`of the U.S. Society of Automotive Engineers for his technical contributions to
`automotive engineering. He is a member of the editorial boards of the journals
`Progress in Energy and Combustion Science and the International Journal of
`Vehicle Design.
`=
`His research publications on internal combustion engines, power generation,
`and gas turbine combustion have won numerous awards. He was awarded the
`Ayreton Premium in 1969 by the British Institution of Electrical Engineers. Pro-
`fessor Heywood received a Ralph R. Testor Award as an outstanding young
`engineering educator from the Society of Automotive Engineers in 1971. He has
`twice been the recipient of an SAE Arch T. Colwell Merit Award for an outstand-
`ing technical publication (1973 and 1981). He received SAE’s Horning Memorial
`Award for the best paper on engines and fuels in 1984, In 1984 he received the
`Sc.D. degree from Cambridge University for his published contributions to
`engineering research. He was selected as the 1986 American Society of Mechani-
`cal Engineers Freeman Scholar for a major review of “Fluid Motion within the
`
`
`Cylinder of Internal Combustion Engines.”
`
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`
`as co-authored two pre-
`ched by Pergamon Press
`‘pact on the Environment
`
`cal Engineers, an associ-
`Astronautics, a fellow of
`182 was elected a Fellow
`shnical contributions to
`| boards of the journals
`'nternational Journal of
`
`gines, power generation,
`ls. He was awarded the
`lectrical Engineers. Pro-
`an outstanding young
`iwineers in 1971. He has
`Award for an outstand-
`\E’s Horning Memorial
`In 1984 he received the
`lished contributions to
`xan Society of Mechani-
`‘luid Motion within the
`
`THIS BOOK IS DEDICATED TO MY FATHER,
`Harold Heywood:
`
`I havefollowed many of the paths he took.
`
`vii
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`
`
`CONTENTS
`
`
`Preface
`
`xvii
`
`Commonly Used Symbols, Subscripts, and
`Abbreviations
`
`Chapter 1
`Lt
`1.2
`1.3
`14
`1.5
`1.6
`1.7
`1.8
`19
`
`Chapter 2
`21
`2.2
`2.3
`2.4
`2.5
`2.6
`2.7
`28
`29
`
`Engine Types and Their Operation
`Intreduction and Historical Perspective
`Engine Classifications
`Engine Operating Cycles
`Engine Components
`Spark-Ignition Engine Operation
`Examples of Spark-Ignition Engines
`Compression-Ignition Engine Operation
`Exampies of Diesel Engines
`Stratified-Charge Engines
`
`Engine Design and Operating Parameters
`Important Engine Characteristics
`Geometrical Properties of Reciprocating Engines
`Brake Torque and Power
`Indicated Work Per Cycle
`Mechanical Efficiency
`Road-Load Power
`Mean Effective Pressure
`Specific Fuel Consumption and Efficiency
`Air/Fuel and Fuel/Air Ratios
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`X
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`CONTENTS
`
`2.10 Volumetric Efficiency
`2.11
`Engine Specific Weight and Specific Volume
`212 Correction Factors for Power and Volumetric Efficiency
`2.13
`Specific Emissions and Emissions Index
`2.14
`Relationships between Performance Parameters
`2.15
`Engine Design and Performance Data
`
`;
`.
`/
`Chapter 3 Thermochemistry of Fuel-Air Mixtures
`3.1
`Characterization of Flames
`3.2
`Ideal Gas Model
`3.3.
`Composition of Air and Fuels
`3.4
`Combustion Stoichiometry
`3.5
`The First Law of Thermodynamics and Combustion
`3.5.1 Energy and Enthalpy Balances
`3.5.2 Enthalpies of Formation
`3.5.3. Heating Values
`3.5.4 Adiabatic Combustion Processes
`3.5.5 Combustion Efficiency of an Internal Combustion Engine
`The Second Law of Thermodynamics Applied to Combustion
`3.6.1 Entropy
`3.62 Maximum Work from an Internal Combustion
`Engine and Efficiency
`Chemically Reacting Gas Mixtures
`3.7.1 Chemical Equilibrium
`3.7.2. Chemical Reaction Rates
`
`3.7
`
`3.6
`
`Chapter 4 Properties of Working Fluids
`P
`pe
`B
`41
`Introduction
`Unburned Mixture Composition
`4.2
`4.3
`Gas Property Relationships
`4.4
`A Simple Analytic Ideal Gas Model
`4.5
`Thermodynamic Charts
`45.1 Unburned Mixture Charts
`45.2 Burned Mixture Charts
`4.5.3. Relation between Unburned and Burned
`Mixture Charts
`Tables of Properties and Composition
`Computer Routines for Property and Composition Calculations
`4.7.1 Unburned Mixtures
`4.7.2 Burned Mixtures
`Transport Properties
`Exhaust Gas Composition
`4.9.1
`Species Concentration Data
`
`4.6
`4.7
`
`4.8
`49
`
`4.9.2 Equivalence Ratio Determination from Exhaust
`Gas Constituents
`4.93 Effects of Fuel/Air Ratio Nonuniformity
`4.9.4 Combustion Inefficiency
`
`—
`
`53
`a
`54
`56
`56
`57
`
`62
`62
`64
`64
`68
`72
`72
`76
`78
`80
`81
`83
`83
`
`83
`85
`86
`92
`
`100.
`100
`102
`107
`109
`112
`112
`116
`
`123
`127
`130
`130
`135
`141
`145
`145
`
`148
`152
`154
`
`Ideal Mi
`Chapter 5
`2 EEA
`53
`Themnselt
`5.4
`Cycle Anal:
`.
`Constant
`i
`5.4.1 Con
`§42 Lim
`5.4.3 Cyel
`Fuel-AirC
`5.5.1. SIE
`5.5.2 CIE
`5.5.3 Resi
`Overexpan
`Availability
`$7.1 Ava
`5.7.2. Ent
`5.7.3 Ava
`5.7.4 Effe
` Compariso
`
`5.5
`
`5.6
`5.7
`
`5.8
`
`Chapter 6 Gas Exc
`6.1
`Inlet and E
`6.2
`Volumetric
`62.1 Qué
`622 Cor
`6.2.3 Var
`oy Bae
`63.1 Por
`63.2 Flo
`Residual
`Exhaust C
` Scavengin
`6.6.1 Tw
`6.6.2
`Seca
`66.3 Aci
`Flow Thr.
` Superchai
`6.8.1 Me
`6.82 Ba
`68.3 Cc
`6.8.4 Ty
`63.5 W
`
`64
`65
`6.6
`
`6.7.
`6.8
`
`Chapter 7 ae
`ne
`Spark-Ig
` Carburet
`
`7.1
`7.2
`
`
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`
`‘ic Efficiency
`
`ters
`
`xtures
`
`tbustion
`
`Combustion Engine
`d to Combustion
`
`mbustion
`
`ed
`
`sition Calculations
`
`| Exhaust
`
`y
`
`453
`54
`54
`56
`
`57
`
`62
`62
`
`68
`72
`72
`76
`78
`80
`gt
`83
`83
`
`83
`
`86
`92
`
`100
`100
`102
`107
`
`112
`112
`116
`
`i123
`127
`130
`130
`135
`141
`145
`145
`
`148
`152
`154
`
`CONTENTS Xi
`
`Chapter 5
`5.1
`5.2
`5.3
`5.4
`
`3.5
`
`5.6
`5.7
`
`5.8
`
`Chapter 6
`6.1
`6.2
`
`6.3
`
`6.4
`6.5
`6.6
`
`6.7
`6.8
`
`Ideal Models of Engine Cycles
`Introduction
`Ideal Models of Engine Processes
`Thermodynamic Relations for Engine Processes
`Cycle Analysis with Ideal Gas Working Fluid with c, and c,
`Constant
`5.4.1 Constant-Volume Cycle
`5.4.2. Limited- and Constant-Pressure Cycles
`5.4.3 Cycle Comparison
`Fuel-Air Cycle Analysis
`5.5.1
`SI Engine Cycle Simulation
`5.5.2 Cl Engine Cycle Simulation
`5.5.3 Results of Cycle Calculations
`Overexpanded Engine Cycles
`Availability Analysis of Engine Processes
`5.7.1 Availability Relationships
`5.7.2 Entropy Changesin Ideal Cycles
`5.7.3 Availability Analysis of Ideal Cycles
`§.7.4 Effect of Equivalence Ratio
`Comparison with Real Engine Cycles
`
`Gas Exchange Processes
`Inlet and Exhaust Processes in the Four-Stroke Cycle
`Volumetric Efficiency
`6.2.1 Quasi-Static Effects
`6.2.2 Combined Quasi-Static and Dynamic Effects
`6.2.3. Variation with Speed, and Valve Area, Lift, and Timing
`Flow Through Valves
`6.3.1 Poppet Valve Geometry and Timing
`6.3.2 Flow Rate and Discharge Coefficients
`Residual Gas Fraction
`Exhaust Gas Flow Rate and Temperature Variation
`Scavenging in Two-Stroke Cycle Engines
`6.6.1 Two-Stroke Engine Configurations
`6.6.2 Scavenging Parameters and Models
`6.6.3 Actual Scavenging Processes
`Flow Through Ports
`Supercharging and Turbocharging
`6.8.1 Methods of Power Boosting
`6.8.2 Basic Relationships
`6.8.3 Compressors
`6.3.4 Turbines
`6.8.5 Wave-Compression Devices
`
`Chapter 7
`
`SI Engine Fuel Metering and Manifold
`Phenomena
`
`71
`72
`
`Spark-Ignition Engine Mixture Requirements
`Carburetors
`
`161
`161
`162
`
`169
`169
`172
`173
`177
`178
`180
`181
`183
`186
`186
`188
`189
`192
`193
`
`205
`206
`209
`209
`212
`216
`220
`220
`225
`230
`231
`235
`235
`237
`
`245
`248
`248
`249
`255
`263
`270
`
`279
`279
`282
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`CONTENTS
`xii
`
`
`73
`
`7.4
`7.5
`7.6
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`282
`7.2.1 Carburetor Fundamentals
`285
`7.2.2 Modern Carburetor Design
`294
`Fuel-Injection Systems
`294
`7.3.1 Multipoint Port Injection
`Chapter 10 Com
`299
`732 Single-Point Throttle-Body Injection
`10.1
`Essen
`301
`Feedback Systems
`10.2
`Types
`304
`Flow Past Throttle Plate
`ite
`308
`Flow in Intake Manifolds
`10.2.2
`308
`7.6.1 Design Requirements
`10.2.3
`309
`7.6.2 Air-Flow Phenomena
`10.3 i
`314
`7.6.3 Fuel-Flow Phenomena
`10.3.1
`:
`ee
`-
`10.32
`326
`Chapter 8 Charge Motion within the Cylinder
`10.3.3
`326
`8.1
`Intake Jet Flow
`
`
`
`8.2 10.4=Anal}Mean Velocity and Turbulence Characteristics 330
`
`8.2.1 Definitions
`330
`10.4.1
`8.2.2 Application to Engine Velocity Data
`336
`10.4.2
`
`83=Swirl 342 10.4.3
`
`8.3.1
`Swirl Measurement
`343
`105
`Fuel
`8.3.2 Swirl Generation during Induction
`345
`10.5.1
`8.3.3 Swirl Modification within the Cylinder
`349
`10.5.2
`
`
`84=Squish 353 10.5.:
`
`
`85
` Prechamber Engine Flows
`357
`10.54
`
`8.6
`Crevice Flows and Blowby
`360
`10.5.:
`
`8.7.
`Flows Generated by Piston—Cylinder Wall Interaction
`365
`10.5.
`
`10.6=Ignit
`Chapter 9 Combustion in Spark-Ignition Engines
`371
`re,
`9.1
`Essential Features of Process
`371
`106.
`9.2
`Thermodynamic Analysis of SI Engine Combustion
`376
`10.6:
`9.2.1 Burned and Unburned Mixture States
`376
`10.6.
`9.2.2 Analysis of Cylinder Pressure Data
`383
`10.6.
`9.2.3. Combustion Process Characterization
`389
`Mixi
`Flame Structure and Speed
`390
`10.7,
`9.3.1 Experimental Observations
`390
`10.7,
`9.3.2 Flame Structure
`395
`10.7
`9.3.3 Laminar Burning Speeds
`402
`9.3.4 Flame Propagation Relations
`406
`Cyclic Variations in Combustion, Partial Burning, and Misfire
`413
`9.4.1. Observations and Definitions *
`413
`9.4.2 Causes of Cycle-by-Cycle and Cylinder-to-Cylinder
`Variations
`9.4.3 Partial Burning, Misfire, and Engine Stability
`Spark Ignition
`9.5.1
`Ignition Fundamentals
`9.5.2 ConventionalIgnition Systems
`9.5.3. Alternative [gnition Approaches
`Abnormal Combustion: Knock and Surface Ignition
`9.6.1 Description of Phenomena
`
`
`
`9.6.2
`9.6.3
`
`10.7
`
`Chapter 11
`iil
`11.2
`
`11.3
`11.4
`
`Po!
`Nat
`Nitz
`11.2
`11.2
`11.2
`112
`Car
`Uni
`Ihe
`11s
`
`419
`424
`427
`427
`437
`443
`450
`450
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`
`
`9.3.
`
`9.4
`
`9.5
`
`9.6
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`
`282
`285
`294
`294
`299
`301
`304
`308
`308
`309
`314
`
`326
`326
`330
`330
`336
`342
`343
`345
`349
`353
`357
`360
`365
`
`371
`371
`376
`376
`383
`389
`390
`390
`395
`402
`406
`413
`413
`
`419
`424
`427
`427
`437
`443
`450
`450
`
`der
`
`tics
`
`er
`
`‘nteraction
`
`igines
`
`bustion
`$
`
`tning, and Misfire
`
`t-to-Cylinder
`
`stability
`
`[gnition
`
`CONTENTS
`
`xiii
`
`Chapter 10
`10.1
`10,2
`
`10.3
`
`10.4
`
`10.5
`
`10.6
`
`10.7
`
`9.6.2 Knock Fundamentals
`9.6.3 Fuel Factors
`
`Combustion in Compression-Ignition Engines
`Essential Features of Process
`Types of Diesel Combustion Systems
`10.2.1 Direct-Injection Systems
`10.2.2
`Indirect-Injection Systems
`10.2.3 Comparison of Different Combustion Systems
`Phenomenological Model of Compression-Ignition Engine
`Combustion
`10.3.1 Photographic Studies of Engine Combustion
`10.3.2. Combustion in Direct-Injection, Multispray Systems
`10.3.3. Application of Model to Other Combustion Systems
`Analysis of Cylinder Pressure Data
`10.4.1 Combustion Efficiency
`10.4.2 Direct-Injection Engines
`10.4.3
`Indirect-Injection Engines
`Fuel Spray Behavior
`10.5.1 Fuel Injection
`10.5.2 Overall Spray Structure
`10.5.3 Atomization
`10.5.4 Spray Penetration
`10.5.5 Droplet Size Distribution
`10.5.6 Spray Evaporation
`Ignition Delay
`10.6.1 Definition and Discussion
`10.6.2 Fuel Ignition Quality
`10.6.3 Autoignition Fundamentals
`10.6.4 Physical Factors Affecting Delay
`10.6.5 Effect of Fuel Properties
`10.6.6 Correlations for Ignition Delay in Engines
`Mixing-Controlled Combustion
`10.7.1 Background
`10.7.2 Spray and Flame Structure
`10.7.3. Fuel-Air Mixing and Burning Rates
`
`Chapter 11
`11.1
`11.2
`
`113
`11.4
`
`Pollutant Formation and Control
`Nature and Extent of Problem
`Nitrogen Oxides
`11.2.1 Kinetics of NO Formation
`11.22 Formation of NO,
`11.2.3 NO Formation in Spark-Ignition Engines
`11.2.4 NO, Formation in Compression-Ignition Engines
`Carbon Monoxide
`Unburned Hydrocarbon Emissions
`11.4.1 Background
`11.4.2 Flame Quenching and Oxidation Fundamentals
`
`457
`470
`
`491
`491
`493
`493
`494
`495
`
`497
`497
`503
`306
`508
`509
`309
`314
`517
`517
`522
`525
`529
`3532
`3535
`539
`539
`541
`542
`346
`550
`353
`355
`555
`555
`358
`
`567
`567
`572
`572
`577
`578
`586
`592
`396
`596
`599
`
`FORDEx. 1025, page 13
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`FORD Ex. 1025, page 13
` IPR2019-01400
`
`

`

`CONTENTS
`
`11.5
`
`11.6
`
`13.4
`13.5
`
`13.6
`
`;
`
`123
`12.4
`
`668
`668
`670
`670
`670
`671
`671
`673
`676
`676
`677
`
`Chapter 14. Mode
`Proce
`
`14.1
`14.2
`
`14.3
`
`ae
`-_
`
`Purpos
`Goverr
`14.2.1
`14.2.2
`Intake
`14.3.1
`14.3.2
`14.3.3
`14.3.4
`Therm
`14.4.1
`14.42
`1443
`14.4.4
`14.4.5
`14.46
`Fluid-
`14.5.1
`14.5.2
`14.5.3
`14.54
`ie2
`
`13.3.1
`601
`11.4.3. HC Emissions from Spark-Ignition Engines
`13.3.2
`620
`11.4.4 Hydrocarbon Emission Mechanisms in Diesel Engines
`13.3.3
`626
`Particulate Emissions
`Measur
`626
`11.5.1 Spark-Ignition Engine Particulates
`Engine
`626
`11.5.2 Characteristics of Diesel Particulates
`13.5.1
`631
`11.5.3 Particulate Distribution within the Cylinder
`13.5.2
`635
`11.5.4 Soot Formation Fundamentals
`Engine
`642
`11.5.5 Soot Oxidation
`13.6.1
`646
`11.5.6 Adsorption and Condensation
`13.6.2
`648
`Exhaust Gas Treatment
`13.6.3
`648
`11.6.1 Available Options
`13.6.4
`649
`11.6.2 Catalytic Converters
`13.6.5
`657
`11.6.3 Thermal Reactors
`Accessc
`13.7
`659
`11.6.4 Particulate Traps
`13.8—Lubricz
`
` XIV
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`Chapter 12 Engine Heat Transfer
`12.1
`Importance of Heat Transfer
`12.2
`Modes of Heat Transfer
`12.2.1 Conduction
`12.2.2 Convection
`12.2.3 Radiation
`12.24 Overall Heat-Transfer Process
`Heat Transfer and Engine Energy Balance
`Convective Heat Transfer
`12.4.1 Dimensional Analysis
`12.4.2. Correlations for Time-Averaged Heat Flux
`12.4.3 Correlations for Instantaneous Spatial
`678
`Average Coefficients
`681
`12.44 Correlations for Instantaneous Local Coefficients
`682
`12.4.5
`Intake and Exhaust System Heat Transfer
`683
`Radiative Heat Transfer
`683
`12.5.1 Radiation from Gases
`684
`12.5.2 Flame Radiation
`688
`12.5.3 Prediction Formulas
`689
`Measurements of Instantaneous Heat-Transfer Rates
`689
`12.6.1 Measurement Methods
`650
`12.6.2 Spark-Ignition Engine Measurements
`692
`12.6.3 Diesel Engine Measurements
`694
`12.6.4 Evaluation of Heat-Transfer Correlations
`697
`12.6.5 Boundary-Layer Behavior
`698
`Thermal Loading and Component Temperatures
`698
`12.7.1 Component Temperature Distributions
`701
`12.7.2 Effect of Engine Variables
`712
`Chapter 13. Engine Friction and Lubrication
`72
`13.1
`Background
`13.2
`Definitions
`714
`13.3
`Friction Fundamentals
`715
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`125
`
`12.6
`
`12.7.
`
`144
`
`14.5
`
`
`
`Chapter 15 Engi
`15.1
`Engin
`15.2.
`
`Indica
`
`FORD Ex. 1025, page 14
`IPR2019-01400
`
`FORD Ex. 1025, page 14
` IPR2019-01400
`
`

`

`
`
`CONTENTS
`
`xv
`
`13.4
`13.5
`
`13.6
`
`13.7
`13.8
`
`13.3.1 Lubricated Friction
`13.3.2 Turbulent Dissipation
`13.3.3 Total Friction
`Measurement Methods
`Engine Friction Data
`13.5.1
`SI Engines
`13.5.2. Diesel Engines
`Engine Friction Components
`13.6.1 Motored Engine Breakdown Tests
`13.6.2. Pumping Friction
`13.6.3. Piston Assembly Friction
`13.6.4 Crankshaft Bearing Friction
`13.6.5 Valve Train Friction
`Accessory Power Requirements
`Lubrication
`13.8.1 Lubrication System
`13.8.2 Lubricant Requirements
`
`Chapter 14
`
`Modeling Real Engine Flow and Combustion
`Processes
`
`14.1
`14.2
`
`14.3
`
`14.4
`
`14.5
`
`Purpose and Classification of Models
`Governing Equations for Open Thermodynamic System
`14.2.1 Conservation of Mass
`14.2.2. Conservation of Energy
`Intake and Exhanst Flow Models
`14.3.1 Background
`143.2 Quasi-Steady Flow Models
`14.3.3. Filling and Emptying Methods
`14.3.4 Gas Dynamic Models
`Thermodynamic-Based In-Cylinder Models
`14.4.1. Background and Overall Model Structure
`14.4.2 Spark-Ignition Engine Models
`14.4.3 Direct-Injection Engine Models
`14.4.4 Prechamber Engine Models
`14.4.5 Multicylinder and Complex Engine System Models
`14.4.6 Second Law Analysis of Engine Processes
`Fluid-Mechanic-Based Multidimensional Models
`14.5.1. Basic Approach and Governing Equations
`14.5.2. Turbulence Models
`14.5.3 Numerical Methodology
`14.5.4 Flow Field Predictions
`14.5.5 Fuel Spray Modeling
`14.5.6 Combustion Modeling
`
`Chapter 15
`15.1
`15.2
`
`Engine Operating Characteristics
`Engine Performance Parameters
`Indicated and Brake Power and MEP
`
`715
`719
`719
`719
`722
`722
`724
`725
`725
`726
`729
`734
`737
`739
`740
`740
`741
`
`748
`748
`750
`750
`751
`753
`753
`753
`754
`756
`762
`762
`766
`778
`784
`789
`792
`797
`797
`800
`803
`807
`$13
`816
`
`823
`823
`824
`
`FORDEx. 1025, page 15
`IPR2019-01400
`
`670
`671
`671
`673
`676
`676
`677
`
`678
`681
`682
`683
`683
`684
`688
`689
`689
`
`692
`694
`697
`698
`698
`701
`
`712
`712
`714
`715
`
`Engines
`$ in Diesel Engines
`
`8 C
`
`ylinder
`
`it Flux
`tal
`
`1 Coefficients
`ansfer
`
`fer Rates
`
`5 t
`
`ions
`
`ures
`ns
`
`FORD Ex. 1025, page 15
` IPR2019-01400
`
`

`

`Internal combustion
`spark-ignition engine
`engine. Since that tim
`of engine processes
`demand for new typ
`engine use changed. I
`and manufacture the
`fields of power, propt
`an explosive growthj
`lution, fuel cost, and
`tant. An enormous te
`adequately organized
`This book has be
`to that need. It conta:
`principles which gov
`attempts to provide.
`technical material th
`engines, and at the sa
`dimensionsofthis pr:
`sound knowledge of
`tribute to this field, a
`base which has been
`research, developmen
`about engines. The et
`and chemistry, fluid
`vant to internal comt
`fuels requirements.
`
`xvi
`
`CONTENTS
`
`15.3
`
`15.4
`
`15.5
`
`15.6
`
`13.7
`
`Operating Variables That Affect SI Engine Performance,
`Efficiency, and Emissions
`15.3.1 Spark Timing
`15.3.2 Mixture Composition
`15.3.3. Load and Speed
`15.3.4 Compression Ratio
`SI Engine Combustion Chamber Design
`15.4.1 Design Objectives and Options
`15.4.2 Factors That Control Combustion
`15.4.3 Factors That Control Performance
`15.4.4 Chamber Octane Requirement
`154.5 Chamber Optimization Strategy
`Variables That Affect CI Engine Performance, Efficiency, and
`Emissions
`
`15.5.1 Load and Speed
`15.5.2 Fuel-Injection Parameters
`15.5.3. Air Swirl and Bowl-in-Piston Design
`Supercharged and Turbocharged Engine Performance
`15.6.1 Four-Stroke Cycle SI Engines
`15.6.2. Four-Stroke Cycle CI Engines
`[5.6.3 Two-Stroke Cycle SI Engines
`[5.6.4 Two-Stroke Cycle CI Engines
`Engine Performance Summary
`
`827
`827
`829
`839
`841
`
`844
`
`850
`852
`857
`
`858
`858
`863
`866
`869
`869
`874
`881
`883
`886
`
`Appendixes
`Unit Conversion Factors
`Ideal Gas Relationships
`B.L
`Ideal Gas Law
`B.2. The Mole
`B.3 Thermodynamic Properties
`B4 Mixtures of Ideal Gases
`Equations for Fluid Flow through a Restriction
`C.t Liquid Flow
`C2 Gas Flow
`Data on Working Fluids
`
`AB
`
`D
`
`Index
`
`
`
`FORD Ex. 1025, page 16
`IPR2019-01400
`
`FORD Ex. 1025, page 16
` IPR2019-01400
`
`

`

`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`CHAPTER
`
`
`
`ENGINE
`DESIGN
`AND OPERATING
`PARAMETERS
`
`2.1
`IMPORTA NT ENGINE
`CHARACTERISTICS
`and the parameters com:
`geometrical relationships
`Tn this chapter, some basic
`d. The factors impor-
`aperation are develope
`monly used to characterize engine
`tant to an engine user are.
`
`;
`
`1. The engine's perlormance
`
`over its operuling range
`cost of the
`2, The enpines fuel consumpuon Wi
`thin (his operating range and the
`s within this operating range
`3, The engine's noise
`mequired fuel
`
`and air pollutant emission:
`
`4, ‘The inihal cost of the esyzie and ts installation
`& The reliability and durability of the etgine, its maintenance requirements, and
`
`
`how these affect engine avanlability and operating costs
`
`
`-usually the primary eonsidel-
`
`ontrol total engine Operating COSTS
`n can satisfy eqvironmental
`These factors ©
`
`)o whelher the eagine ml operate
`(he performance, efficiency.
`
`wvion of (he user——an
`kk
`ig concerned primarily with
`of the other factors listed
`regula tions This boo
`
`tics of engines: the omission
`and emissions charactects
`
`luce their great importance.
`above does not, nanny way, TE
`
`
`42
`
`
`
`FORD Ex. 1025, page 17
`IPR2019-01400
`
`FORD Ex. 1025, page 17
` IPR2019-01400
`
`

`

`
`
`
`CHAPTER
`
`ENGINE DESIGN AND OPERATING PARAMETERS
`
`43
`
`Engine performance is more precisely defined by
`
`1. The maximum power (or the maximum torque) available at each speed within
`the useful engine operating range
`2. The range of speed and power over which engine operationis satisfactory
`
`
`
`The following performance definitions are commonly used:
`
`ENGINE
`DESIGN
`PERATI NG
`RAM ETERS
`
`Maximum rated power. The highest power an engine is allowed to develop
`for short periods of operation.
`Normal rated power. The highest power an engine is allowed to develop in
`continuousoperation.
`Rated speed. The crankshaft rotational speed at which rated poweris devel-
`
`oped.
`
`2.2 GEOMETRICAL PROPERTIES OF
`RECIPROCATING ENGINES
`
`The following parameters define the basic geometry of a reciprocating engine (see
`Fig. 2-1):
`
`Compressionratio r,:
`
`and the parameters com:
`eloped. The factors impot-
`
`ig range and the cost of the
`;
`this operating range
`Pp
`
`in
`in
`
`(2.2)
`
`(2.3)
`.
`
`|
`
`|i
`
`|
`
`
`
`
`_ maximum cylinder volume_Vj, + ¥,
`= :
`-
`2.1
`* minimum cylinder volume
`V,
`@1)
`where V;, is the displaced or swept volume and V, is the clearance volume.
`Ratio of cylinder bore to piston stroke:
`Rr, -2
`L
`Ratio of connecting rod length to crank radius:
`R= I
`a
`In addition, the stroke and crank radius are related by
`L=2a
`
`intenance requirements, and
`costs
`
`isually the primary consider-
`on can satisfy environmental
`the performance, efficiency,
`i
`on of the other factors listed
`‘tance.
`
`Typical values of these parameters are: r, = 8 to 12 for SI engines and r, = 12 to
`24 for CI engines; B/L = 0.8 to 1.2 for small- and medium-size engines, decreas-
`mg to about 0.5 for large slow-speed CI engines; R =3 to 4 for small- and
`medium-size engines, increasing to 5 to 9 for large slow-speed CI engines.
`The cylinder volumeV at any crank position @ is
`1B?
`vV=Vye+ “4, (l+a—s)
`
`(2.4)
`
`
`
`FORD Ex.1025, page 18
`IPR2019-01400
`
`FORD Ex. 1025, page 18
` IPR2019-01400
`
`

`

`
`
`
`FIGURE 2-1
`connecting cod,
`cylinder, piston,
`Geometry of
`L = stroke,
`and
`crankshaft whete B= bore,
`}—connecting road length, a = crank radius, =
`crank angle.
`
`44
`
`INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE FUNDAMENTALS
`
`= T TC
`
`|L
`
`||!
`
`_ uc
`
`vj
`
`
`
`andis given by
`
`c
`
`ranged:
`
`BL
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`where s is the distance between the crank axis and the piston pin axis (Fig. 2-4),
`=acos0+(2 —a? sin’ oy?
`(2.5)
`The ungle 0, definedas shownin Fig. 2-1,is called the crank angle. Equation (2.4)
`with the above definitions can be rearranged:
`V 4 44(,—N[R+1— cos 6- (R? — sin? 6)"7]
`(2.6)
`1 surface area A at any crank position 0 is given by
`The combustion chambe
`(2.7)
`A= Ag + Ap + mB+ a — 5)
`where A, is the cylinder head surface area and A, is ihe piston crown surface
`area, For flat-topped pistons, A, = nB?/4. Using Eq.(2.5), Eq. (2-7) can be rear-
`A=Ay, + Apt on [R +1 —cos 9 —(R? ~ sin? ayy
`(2.8)
`aracteristic speed is the mean piston speed Sp:
`(2.9)
`5, =2LN
`d of the crankshaft. Mean piston speedis often a
`
`An important ch
`
`where N is the rotational spee
`
`
`
`FORD Ex. 1025, page 19
`IPR2019-01400
`
`FORD Ex. 1025, page 19
` IPR2019-01400
`
`

`

`|
`
`ENGINE DESIGN AND OPERATING PARAMETERS
`
`45
`
` FIGURE 2-2
`
`Crank angle, 0
`
`180
`BC
`
`Instantaneous piston speed/meanpiston speed
`asa function of crank angle for R = 3.5.
`
`more appropriate parameter than crank rotational speed for correlating engine
`behavior as a function of speed. For example, gas-flow velocities in the intake
`and the cylinder all scale with S,. The instantaneous piston velocity S, is obtained
`from
`
`ds
`=>
`dt
`
`B
`
`1
`(2 0)
`
`The piston velocity is zero at the beginning of the stroke, reaches a maximum
`near the middle of the stroke, and decreases to zero at the end of the stroke.
`Differentiation of Eq. (2.5) and substitution gives
`
`connecting rod,
`der, piston,
`there B=bore, L= stroke,
`length, a= crank radius, @=
`
`piston pin axis (Fig. 2-1),
`
`2
`
`(2.5)
`
`orank angle. Equation (2.4)
`
`— sin? 6)'!74
`
`(2.6)
`
`5,72 sin 6 [ + (R? —sin?oyarr| (2.11)
`
`8, 2,
`
`cos @
`
`
`rank position 6 is given by
`s)
`(2.7)
`is the piston crown surface
`(2.5), Eq. (2-7) can be rear-
`
`Figure 2-2 shows how S,varies over each stroke for R = 3.5.
`Resistance to gas flow into the engine or stresses due to the inertia of the
`Moving parts limit the maximum mean piston speed to within the range 8 to 15
`m/s (1500 to 3000 ft/min). Automobile engines operate at the higher end ofthis
`range; the lower end is typical of large marinediesel engines.
`
`R2 — sin? 9)!/7]
`
`(2.8)
`
`ston speed S,:
`
`(2.9)
`
`fean piston speed is often a
`
`2.3. BRAKE TORQUE AND POWER
`Engine torque is normally measured with a dynamometer.! The engine is
`clamped on a test bed and the shaft is connected to the dynamometer rotor.
`Figure 2-3 illustrates the operating principle of a dynamometer. The rotor is
`
`
`
`FORD Ex. 1025, page 20
`IPR2019-01400
`
`FORD Ex. 1025, page 20
` IPR2019-01400
`
`

`

`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`46
`
`INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE FUNDAMENTALS
`
`eeny
`Stator *
`Wom
`
`Force F
`
`\
`
`i————
`
` - ———
`Load
`a
`\
`—
`cell
`f= a
`‘|
`FIGURE 2-3
`N Schematic ofprinciple of operation of dynamometer =
`
`
`
`
`
`coupled electromagnetically, hydraulically, or by mechanical Miction Lo a stalor,
`which is supported 10 low friction bearings. The stator is bulnecd with the rotor
`stationary, The torque exerted on the stator wilh the rotor (irhing is measured
`hy balancing the stutor with weights, springs, or pneumatic means.
`Using Ure notation in Fig, 2-3, if the torque exerted by (he engine 1st
`T = Fb
`(2.12)
`The power P delivered by the engine and absorbed by the dynamometeris the
`productof torque and angular speed:
`P =2xNT
`
`(2.13a)
`
`where N is the crankshaft rotational speed. In SI units:
`P(kW) = 2xN(rev/s)T(N «m) x 10-3
`
`(2.135)
`
`or in U.S.units:
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`N(rev/min) T(lbf- ft)
`(hp)
`Ss)
`(2.130)
`P(hp) =———5 A
`
`
`Note that torque is a measure of an engine’s ability to do work; poweris the rate
`at which workis done.
`
`
`The value of engine power measured as described above is called brake
`power P,,. This power is the usable power delivered by the engine to the load—in
`
`this case, a “ brake.”
`
`
` 2.4
`INDICATED WORK PER CYCLE
`
`
`Pressure data for
`the was im the cylinder over the opersbog cycle of the engine
`van be used 10 caleulute the wark transfer from the gas (o tbe piston The evlin-
`
`
`der pressure and corresponding cylinder volume throughout the engine wyele can
`be plotted on a pl’ diagram as showh in Fig. 2-4. The /ndicated work per eyele
`Wt (per cylineler) is ablained by integrating around the curve to obtain the
`
`+ The term indicated is used because such p-V diagramsused to be generated directly with a device
`
`FORD Ex.1025, page 21
`IPR2019-01400
`
`
`
`
`
`called an engineindicator.
`
`FORD Ex. 1025, page 21
` IPR2019-01400
`
`

`

`2-stroke
`
`4-stroke
`
`4-stroke
`
`ENGINE DESIGN AND OPERATING PARAMETERS
`
`47
`
`Evoh
`
`2
`e
`2
`a
`Zz
`3
`‘Blowdown
`g
`4
`a
`owcowh
`eo
`5
`u
`5 Compression
`SS
`*.— Expansion
`.
`;
`\
`5
`2
`ke
`“s
`:
`tt
`INNO Exhaust a
`3
`cy Pel 2] Gee
`tf
`3|\\Q>
`é
`:
`“=
`ee
`:
`Intake =
`r
`Oo
`| — <4
`ohclomkesyIVC.
`
`
`TC
`
`Vol. BC