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`. Rappapnlt
`
`

`
`Wireless
`
`Communications
`
`Principles and Practice
`
`Theodore S. Rappaport
`
`For book and booksiore information
`
`http:lIwww.prenha!I.com
`
`/.-A-V.aI»'1;e.vAsr21..2¢'/J:
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`
`Prentice Hall PTR
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`

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`© 1996 by Prentice Hall PTR
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`Printed in the United States of America
`10
`9
`8
`7
`6
`5
`4
`
`ISBN O—l3—375536—3
`
`Prentice-Hall International (UK) Limited, London
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`iii
`
`

`
`The LORD has blessed me i
`
`with a wonderfulfamily
`to whom this book is dedicated
`
`To my wife Brenda Marie,
`% and to our children
`Matthew, Natalie, and Jennifer
`
`iv
`
`

`
`Contents
`
`Preface
`
`1 Introduction to Wireless Communication Systems
`1.1 Evolution of Mobile Radio Communications
`
`1.2 Mobile Radiotelephone in the U.S.
`
`1.3 Mobile Radio Systems Around the World
`
`1.4 Examples of Mobile Radio Systems
`
`1.4.1 Paging Systems
`
`4
`
`1.4.2 Cordless Telephone Systems
`
`1.4.3 Cellular Telephone Systems
`
`1.4.4 Comparison of Common Mobile Radio Systems
`1.5 Trends in Cellular Radio and Personal Communications
`
`1.6 Problems
`
`2 The Cellular Concept —- System Design Fundamentals
`2.1 Introduction
`
`2.2 Frequency Reuse
`
`2.3 Channel Assignment Strategies
`
`2.4 Handoff Strategies
`
`2.4.1 Prioritizing Handoffs
`
`2.4.2 Practical Handoff Considerations
`
`_
`
`2.5 Interference and System Capacity
`
`2.5.1 Co-channel Interferencesand System Capacity
`
`2.5.2 Adjacent Channel Interference
`
`2.5.3 Power Control for Reducing Interference
`
`2.6 Trunking and Grade of Service
`
`xi
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`1
`1
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`4
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`6
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`9
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`11
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`13
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`14
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`17
`20
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`22
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`25
`25
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`26
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`30
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`31
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`34
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`34
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`37
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`37
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`41
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`43
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`44
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`

`
`vi
`
`Contents
`
`2.7 Improving Capacity in Cellular Systems
`
`2.7.1 Cell Splitting
`
`2.7.2 Sectoring
`
`2.7.3 A Novel Microcell Zone Concept
`
`2.8 Summary
`2
`alems
`
`e Radio Propagation: Large-Scale Path Loss
`3 l‘
`3.1 iuuoduction to Radio Wave Propagation
`
`3.2 Free Space Propagation Model
`
`3.3 Relating Power to Electric Field
`
`3.4 The Three Basic Propagation Mechanisms
`3.5 Reflection
`
`3.5.1 Reflection from Dielectrics
`
`3.5.2 Brewster Angle
`3.5.3 Reflection from Perfect Conductors
`
`3.6 Ground Retlection. (2-ray) Model
`3.7 Diffraction
`
`3.7.1 Fresnel Zone Geometry
`
`3.7.2 Knife-edge Diffraction Model
`3.7.3 Multiple Knife-edge Diffraction
`
`3.8 Scattering
`3.8.1 Radar Cross Section Model
`
`3.9 Practical Link Budget Design using Path Loss Models
`
`3.9.1 Log-distance Path Loss Model
`
`3.9.2 Log-normal Shadowing
`3.9.3 Determination of Percentage of Coverage Area
`3.10 Outdoor Propagation Models
`
`3.10.1 Longley-Rice Model
`
`3.10.2 Durkirfs Model —— A Case Study
`3.10.3 Okumura Model
`
`3.10.4 Hata Model
`
`3.10.5 PCS Extension to Hata Model
`
`3.10.6 Walfisch and Bertoni Model
`
`3.10.7 Wideband PCS Microcell Model
`
`3.11 Indoor Propagation Models
`3.11.1 Partition Losses (same floor)
`3.11.2 Partition Losses between Floors
`
`3.11.3 Log-distance Path Loss Model
`
`3.11.4 Ericsson Multiple Breakpoint Model
`3.11.5 Attenuation Factor Model
`
`3.12 Signal Penetration into Buildings
`
`3.13 Ray Tracing and Site Specific Modeling
`3 .14 Problems
`
`54
`
`54
`
`57
`
`61
`
`63
`63
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`69
`69
`
`70
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`74
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`78
`78
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`79
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`84
`85
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`85
`90
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`91
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`94
`99
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`100
`101
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`102
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`102
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`104
`106
`110
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`110
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`111
`116
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`119
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`120
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`120
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`121
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`123
`123
`126
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`126
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`128
`128
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`131
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`132
`133
`
`

`
`Contents
`
`vii
`
`4 Mobile Radio Propagation: Small-Scale Fading and Multipath 139
`139
`4.1 Small-Scale Multipath Propagation
`4.1.1 Factors Influencing Small—Scale Fading
`4.1.2 Doppler Shift
`4.2 Impulse Response Model of a Multipath Channel
`4.2.1 Relationship Between Bandwidth and Received Power
`4.3 Small-S cale Multipath Measurements
`4.3.1 Direct RF Pulse System
`4.3.2 Spread Spectrum Sliding Correlator Channel Sounding
`4.3.3 Frequency Domain Channel Sounding
`4.4 Parameters of Mobile Multipath Channels
`4.4.1 Time Dispersion Parameters
`4.4.2 Coherence Bandwidth
`
`140
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`141
`
`143
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`147
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`153
`
`154
`
`155
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`158
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`159
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`160
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`163
`
`4.4.3 Doppler Spread and Coherence Time
`4.5 Types of Small-Scale Fading
`4.5.1 Fading Effects Due to Multipath Time Delay Spread
`4.5.2 Fading Effects Due to Doppler Spread
`4.6 Rayleigh and Ricean Distributions
`4.6.1 Rayleigh Fading Distribution
`4.6.2 Ricean Fading Distribution
`4.7 Statistical Models for Multipath Fading Channels
`4.7.1 Clarke’s Model for Flat Fading
`4.7.2 Simulation of Clarke and Gans Fading Model
`
`4.7.3 Level Crossing and Fading Statistics
`4.7.4 Two-ray Rayleigh Fading Model
`4.7.5 Saleh and Valenzuela Indoor Statistical Model
`
`4.7.6 SIRCIM and SMRCIM Indoor and Outdoor Statistical Models
`
`4.8 Problems
`
`5 Modulation Techniques for Mobile Radio
`5.1 Frequency Modulation vs. Amplitude Modulation
`5 .2 Amplitude Modulation
`5.2.1 Single Sideband AM
`5.2.2 Pilot Tone SSB
`
`5.2.3 Demodulation of AM signals
`5.3 Angle Modulation
`5.3.1 Spectra and Bandwidth of FM Signals
`5.3.2 FM Modulation Methods
`
`5.3.3 FM Detection Techniques
`5.3.4 Tradeoff Between SNR and Bandwidth in an FM Signal
`5.4 Digital Modulation —— an Overview
`5.4.1 Factors That Influence the Choice of Digital Modulation
`
`5.4.2 Bandwidth and Power Spectral Density of Digital Signals
`5.4.3 Line Coding
`5.5 Pulse Shaping Techniaues
`
`165
`
`167
`
`168
`
`170
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`172
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`172
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`174
`
`176
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`177
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`181
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`185
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`188
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`188
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`189 ~
`
`192
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`197
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`198
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`199
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`I 202
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`203
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`206
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`206
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`208
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`209
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`21 1
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`219
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`220
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`221
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`224
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`225
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`225
`
`

`
`
`
`viii
`
`5
`
`L
`
`1
`
`Contents
`
`5.5.2 Raised Cosine Rolloff Filter
`
`5.5.3 Gaussian Pulse—shaping Filter
`5.6 Geometric Representation of Modulation Signals
`5.7 Linear Modulation Techniques
`5.7.1 Binary Phase Shift Keying (BPSK)
`5.7.2 Differential Phase Shift Keying (DPSK)
`5.7.3 Quadrature Phase Shift Keying (QPSK)
`5.7.4 QPSK Transmission and Detection Techniques
`5.7.5 Offset QPSK
`
`Z
`
`5.7.6 1:/4 QPSK
`5.7.7 1:/4 QPSK Transmission Techniques
`5.7.8 7:/4 QPSK Detection Techniques
`5.8 Constant Envelope Modulation
`5.8.1 Binary Frequency Shift Keying
`5.8.2 Minimum Shift Keying (MSK)
`5.8.3 Gaussian Minimum Shift Keying (GMSK)
`5.9 Combined Linear and Constant Envelope Modulation Techniques
`5.9.1 M-ary Phase Shift Keying (MPSK)
`5.9.2 M—ary Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM)
`5.9.3 M-ary Frequency Shift Keying (MFSK)
`5.10 Spread Spectrum Modulation Techniques
`5.10.1 Pseudo~noise (PN) Sequences
`5.10.2 Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DS—SS)
`5.10.3 Frequency Hopped Spread Spectrum (FH-SS)
`5.10.4 Performance of Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum
`5.10.5 Performance of Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum
`5.11 Modulation Performance in Fading and Multipath Channels
`5.11.1 Performance of Digital Modulation in Slow, Flat Fading Channels
`5.11.2 Digital Modulation in Frequency Selective Mobile Channels
`5.11.3 Performance of 7:/4 DQPSK in Fading and Interference
`5.12 Problems
`
`6 Equalization, Diversity, and Channel Coding
`6.1 Introduction
`
`6.2 Fundamentals of Equalization
`6.3 A Generic Adaptive Equalizer
`6.4 Equalizers in a Communications Receiver
`6.5 Survey of Equalization Techniques
`6.6 Linear Equalizers
`6.7 Nonlinear Equalization
`6.7.1 Decision Feedback Equalization (DFE)
`6.7.2 Maximum Likelihood Sequence Estimation (MLSE) Equalizer
`6.8 Algorithms for Adaptive Equalization
`6.8.1 Zero Forcing Algorithm
`6.8.2 Least Mean Square Algorithm
`6.8.3 Recursive Least Squares Algorithm
`6.8.4 Summary of Algorithms
`
`'
`
`229
`
`233
`234
`238
`238
`242
`243
`246
`247
`
`249
`M9
`252
`254
`256
`259
`261
`267
`267
`270
`272
`274
`275
`276
`278
`280
`283
`284
`285
`289
`290
`294
`
`299
`299
`
`300
`303
`307
`308
`310
`312
`313
`315
`316
`318
`319
`321
`323
`
`

`
`
`
`Contents
`
`ix
`
`’ 6.9 Fractionally Spaced Equalizers
`6.10 Diversity Techniques
`6.10.1 Derivation of Selection Diversity Improvement
`6.10.2 Derivation of Maximal Ratio Combining Improvement
`6.10.3 Practical Space Diversity Considerations
`6.10.4 Polarization Diversity
`.
`6.10.5 Frequency Diversity
`6.10.6 Time Diversity
`6.11 RAKE Receiver
`6.12 Interleaving
`6.13 Fundamentals of Channel Coding
`6.14 Block Codes
`
`6.14.1 Examples of Block Codes
`6.14.2 Case Study of Reed-Solomon Codes
`6.15 Convolutional Codes
`
`6.15.1 Decoding of Convolutional Codes
`6.16 Coding Gain
`6.17 Trellis Coded Modulation
`
`618 Problems
`7 Speech Coding
`7.1 Introduction
`7.2 Characteristics of Speech Signals
`7.3 Quantization Techniques
`7.3.1 Unifonn Quantization
`7.3.2 Nonuniform Quantization
`7.3.3 Adaptive Quantization
`7.3.4 Vector Quantization
`7.4 Adaptive Differential Pulse Code Modulation
`7.5 Frequency Domain Coding of Speech
`7.5.1 Sub-band Coding
`7.5.2 Adaptive Transform Coding
`7.6 Vocoders
`
`’
`
`7.6.1 Channel Vocoders
`
`7.6.2 Formant Vocoders
`
`7.6.3 Cepstrum Vocoders
`7.6.4 Voice—Excited Vocoder
`
`7.7 Linear Predictive Coders
`
`7.7.1 LPC Vocoders
`7.7.2 Multi-pulse Excited LPC
`7.7.3 Code-Excited LPC
`
`7.7.4 Residual Excited LPC
`7.8 Choosing Speech Codecs for Mobile Communications
`7.9 The GSM Codec
`
`7.10 The USDC Codec
`7.11 Performance Evaluation of Speech Coders
`
`323
`325
`326
`328
`330
`332
`335
`335
`336
`338
`339
`340
`
`344
`346
`352
`
`354
`356
`356
`
`357
`361
`361
`363
`365
`365
`365
`368
`368
`369
`371
`372
`375
`376
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`376
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`377
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`377
`378
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`378
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`378
`381
`382
`
`383
`384
`387
`
`389
`389
`
`

`
` x
`
`Contents
`
`8 Multiple Access Techniques for Wireless Communications
`8.1 Introduction
`
`8.1.1 Introduction to Multiple Access
`8.2 Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA)
`8.3 Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)
`8.4 Spread Spectrum Multiple Access
`8.4.1 Frequency Hopped Multiple Access (FHMA)
`8.4.2 Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)
`8.4.3 Hybrid Spread Spectrum Techniques
`8.5 Space Division Multiple Access (SDMA)
`8.6 Packet Radio
`
`V 8.6.1 Packet Radio Protocols
`8.6.2 Canier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA) Protocols
`8.6.3 Reservation Protocols
`.
`
`8.6.4 Capture Effect in Packet Radio
`8.7 Capacity of Cellular Systems
`8.7.1 Capacity of Cellular CDMA
`8.7.2 Capacity of CDMA with Multiple Cells
`8.7.3 Capacity of Space Division Multiple Access
`8.8 Problems
`
`9 Wireless Networking
`9.1 Introduction to Wireless Networks
`
`9.2 Differences Between Wireless and Fixed Telephone Networks
`9.2.1 The Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN)
`9.2.2 Limitations in Wireless Networking
`9.2.3 Merging Wireless Networks and the PSTN
`9.3 Development of Wireless Networks
`9.3.1 First Generation Wireless Networks
`
`.
`
`9.3.2 Second Generation Wireless Networks
`
`9.3.3 Third Generation Wireless Networks
`
`.
`
`A
`
`9.4 Fixed Network Transmission Hierarchy
`9.5 Traffic Routing in Wireless Networks
`9.5.1 Circuit Switching
`9.5.2 Packet Switching
`9.5.3 The X.25 Protocol
`
`9.6 Wireless Data Services A
`
`9.6.1 Cellular Digital Packet Data (CDPD)
`9.6.2 Advanced Radio Data Information Systems (ARDIS)
`9.6.3 RAM Mobile Data (RMD)
`9.7 Common Channel Signaling (CCS)
`9.7.1 The Distributed Central Switching Office for CCS
`9.8 Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN)
`9.8.1 Broadband ISDN and ATM
`
`9.9 Signaling System No.7 (SS7)
`9.9.1 Network Services Part (NSP) of SS7
`
`395
`395
`
`396
`397
`400
`404
`404
`405
`407
`409
`410
`
`411
`415
`416
`
`416
`417
`422
`425
`431
`437
`
`439
`439
`
`441
`441
`443
`444
`445
`445
`
`448
`
`449
`
`449
`450
`452
`452
`454
`
`455
`
`455
`457
`457
`458
`459
`461
`463
`
`463
`465
`
`

`
`
`
`Contents
`
`9.9.2 The SS7 User Part
`
`9.9.3 Signaling Traffic in SS7
`9.9.4 SS7 Services
`
`9.9.5 Performance of SS7
`
`9.10 An example of SS7 —- Global Cellular Network Interoperability
`
`9.11 Personal Communication Services/Networks (PCS/PCN)
`
`9.11.1 Packet vs. Circuit switching for PCN
`9.11.2 Cellular Packet-Switched Architecture
`
`9.12 Protocols for Network Access
`
`9.12.1 Packet Reservation Multiple Access (PRMA)
`9.13 Network Databases
`’
`
`9.13.1 Distributed Database for Mobility Management
`9.14 Universal Mobile Telecommunication System (UMTS)
`
`9.15 Summary
`10 Wireless Systems and Standards
`10.1 AMPS and ETACS
`
`10.1.1 AMPS and ETACS System Overview
`10.1.2 Call Handling in AMPS and ETACS
`10.1.3 AMPS and ETACS Air Interface
`
`10.1.4 N-AMPS
`
`10.2 United States Digital Cellular (IS-54)
`10.2.1 USDC Radio Interface
`
`10.2.2 United States Digital Cellular Derivatives (IS—94 and IS-136)
`10.3 Global System for Mobile (GSM)
`10.3.1 GSM Services and Features
`10.3.2 GSM System Architecture
`10.3.3 GSM Radio Subsystem
`10.3.4 GSM Channel Types
`10.3.5 Example of a GSM Call
`10.3.6 Frame Structure for GSM
`
`7
`
`10.3.7 Signal Processing in GSM
`10.4 CDMA Digital Cellular Standard (IS-95)
`10.4.1 Frequency and Channel Specifications
`10.4.2 Forward CDMA Channel
`
`10.4.3 Reverse CDMA Channel
`
`10.4.4 IS-95 with 14.4 kbps Speech Coder [ANS95]
`10.5 CT2 Standard For Cordless Telephones
`10.5.1 CT2 Services and Features
`
`10.5.2 The CT2 Standard
`
`10.6 Digital European Cordless Telephone (DECT)
`10.6.1 Features and Characteristics
`
`10.6.2 DECT Architecture
`
`10.6.3 DECT Functional Concent
`
`466
`
`467
`468
`
`469
`
`469
`
`472
`
`472
`473
`
`477
`
`478
`479
`
`479
`480
`
`481
`483
`483
`
`484
`485
`487
`
`491
`
`491
`493..
`
`.
`
`500
`500
`50_1
`502
`505
`507
`512
`513
`
`515
`519
`520
`521
`
`527'
`
`533
`533
`533
`
`534
`
`535
`535
`
`536
`
`537
`
`

`
`
`
`xii
`
`10.7 PACS —— Personal Access Communication Systems
`10.7.1 PACS System Architecture
`10.7.2 PACS Radio Interface
`
`10.8 Pacific Digital Cellular (PDC)
`10.9 Personal Handyphone System (PHS)
`10.10 U.S. PCS and ISM Bands
`
`10.11 U.S. Wireless Cable Television
`
`A
`
`10.12 Summary of Standards Throughout the World
`10.13 Problems
`
`Contents
`
`539
`540
`541
`
`543
`544
`544
`
`547
`
`548
`551
`
`APPENDICES
`
`555
`A Trunking Theory
`556
`A.1 Erlang B
`556
`A.1.1 Derivation ofErla11g B
`561
`A2 Erlang C
`561
`A.2.1 Derivation of Erlang C
`565
`B Noise Figure Calculations for Link Budgets
`569
`C Gaussian Approximations for Spread Spectrum CDMA
`577
`C.1 The Gaussian Approximation .
`582
`C.2 The Improved Gaussian Approximation (IGA)
`C.3 A Simplified Expression for the Improved Gaussian Approximation (SEIGA) 585
`D Q, erf & erfc Functions“
`593
`D.1 The Q-Function
`593
`D2 The erf and erfc functions
`595
`
`E Mathematical Tabies
`
`F Abbreviations and Acronyms
`G References
`
`Index
`
`599
`
`607
`617
`
`635
`
`

`
`Diversity Techniques
`
`335
`
`The correlation coefficient
`
`is determined by three factors: polarization
`
`angle; offset angle from the main beam direction of the diversity antenna and the
`cross polarization discrimination. The correlation coefficient generally becomes
`higher as offset angle [3 becomes larger. Also, p generally becomes lower as
`
`polarization angle or increases. This is because the horizontal polarization com-
`
`ponent becomes larger as or increases.
`Because antenna elements V1 and V2 are polarized at ion to the vertical,
`the received signal level is lower than that received by a vertically polarized
`antenna. The average value of signal loss L , relative to that received using verti-
`cal polarization is given by
`
`The results of practical experiments carried out using polarization diversity
`[K0285] show that polarization diversity is a viable diversity reception tech-
`
`L = a2/I‘ + b2
`
`(6.78)
`
`nique.
`
`6.10.5 Frequency Diversity
`
`Frequency diversity transmits information on more than one carrier fre-
`quency. The rationale behind this technique is that frequencies separated by
`more than the coherence bandwidth of the channel will not experience the same
`fades [Lem91]. Theoretically, if the channels are uncorrelated, the probability of
`simultaneous fading will be the product of the individual fading probabilities
`
`(see equation (6.58)).
`Frequency diversity is often employed in microwave line-of-sight links
`which carry several channels in a frequency division multiplex mode (FDM). Due
`to tropospheric propagation and resulting refraction, deep fading sometimes
`occurs. In practice, 1:N protection switching is provided by a radio licensee,
`wherein one frequency is nominally idle but is available on a stand-by basis to
`provide frequency diversity switching for any one of the N other carriers (fre-
`quencies) being used on the same link, each carrying independent traffic. VVhen
`diversity is needed, the appropriate traffic is simply switched to the backup fre-
`quency. This technique has the disadvantage that it not only requires spare
`bandwidth but also requires that there be as many receivers as there are chan-
`nels used for the frequency diversity. However, for critical trafiic, the expense
`
`may be justified.
`
`6.10.6 Time Diversity
`
`Time diversity repeatedly transmits information at time spacings that
`exceed the coherence time of the channel, so that multiple repetitions of the sig-
`nal will be received with independent fading conditions, thereby providing for
`
`diversity. One modern implementation of time diversity involves the use of the