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`3 .
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`nilteaEe,i-
`
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`i
`
`“1. PROCESSING
`
`;
`||
`
`etetie et :
`\ 1
`Second Edition
`——————__-s
`| anne
`
`|
`
`A. BRENT STRONG
`
`Page 1
`
`MacNeil Exhibit 2011
`
`Yita v. MacNeil IP, IPR2020-01139
`
`MacNeil Exhibit 2011
`Yita v. MacNeil IP, IPR2020-01139
`Page 1
`
`

`

`Comparison of Major Plastics
`
`Polymer Repeat Unit
`Name of Plastic
`Polyethylene (PE) +C-C+o
`
`Polypropylene (PP)
`
`Polyvinyl chloride
`(PVC)
`
`Polystyrene (PS)
`
`+C-C+o
`I
`C
`
`+C-C+o
`I
`CI
`
`+C-C+o
`
`©
`
`Properties Comparisons Typical Uses
`
`Brand Names
`
`• Stiffness increases
`from LOPE and
`LLDPE to HDPE
`• Strength increases
`from LOPE to LLDPE
`to HDPE
`• Resistant to water
`and solvents
`• Low melting point
`• Inexpensive
`• Excellent electrical
`resistance
`
`• Resists stress
`cracking
`• Stronger and stiffer
`than HOPE
`• Resistant to water and
`solvents
`• Low cost
`• Moderately strong and
`stiff (rigid)
`• Often highly filled
`(rigid)
`• Flexible (plasticized)
`• Flame retardant
`• Low cost
`
`• Trash bags (LDPE
`and LLDPE)
`• Milk jugs (HDPE)
`• Toys (HDPE)
`• Trash carts (HDPE)
`• Pipe for natural gas
`(HDPE)
`• Packaging films and
`containers
`• Electrical wire
`coating
`
`• Alathon (DuPont)
`• Dowlex (Dow)
`• Escorene (Exxon)
`• Hostelen (Hoechst)
`• Marlex (Phillips)
`• Petrothene (USI)
`• Tenite (Eastman)
`• Fortiflex (Solvay)
`• Petrothene (Quantum)
`• Novapol (Nova)
`• Sclair (Nova)
`
`• Marlex (Phillips)
`• Containers with
`integral hinges
`• Polyfort (Schulman)
`• Microwave containers • Pro-Fax (Montell)
`• Utility fibers (woven
`• Vistalon (Exxon)
`bags, ropes,
`• Vrestolen (Huls)
`carpets)
`
`• Armodur (Rhone-
`Poulenc)
`• Ensolite (Uniroyal)
`• Fiberloc (Uniroyal)
`• Geon (BF Goodrich)
`• Vynide (lCI)
`• Vygen (General Tire)
`
`• Pipe (rigid and
`flexible)
`• Bottles (flexible)
`• Toys (flexible)
`• Packaging film
`(flexible)
`• Car mats, seats
`(flexible)
`• Foamed pads
`• Hose coating
`(flexible)
`
`• Stiffer than HDPE
`• Clear (yellows with age)
`• Low cost but not as low
`as PE
`• Brittle
`
`• Cups and other
`containers
`• Toys
`• Foamed insulation,
`cups and other
`objects
`
`• Pelaspan (Dow)
`• Styrofoam (Dow)
`• Dylene (Arco)
`• Dylark (Nova)
`• Huntsman EPS
`(Huntsman)
`
`MacNeil Exhibit 2011
`Yita v. MacNeil IP, IPR2020-01139
`Page 2
`
`

`

`Polyacrylonitrile
`(PAN)
`
`-E-C-CTn
`I
`C N
`
`ABS
`
`PS, PAN, PB
`
`Nylon/polyamide
`(PA)
`
`Acetals/
`polyoxymethylene
`(POM)
`
`Polyester,
`thermoplastic
`(PET)
`
`Polycarbonate
`(PC)
`
`H
`H
`I
`I
`-E-N+C-taN-C+C"ij;"CTn
`
`0
`
`"
`
`0
`
`"
`
`-E-C-0+n
`
`0
`
`0
`
`-E-O-C-C-O-C-~-CTn
`"
`
`"
`
`0
`
`-E-O-C-O- 0 -1- 0 Tn
`" ~ I @
`
`C
`
`C
`
`• Easily colored
`• Weather resistant
`• Reasonably tough
`• Good barrier
`
`• Tough, impact resistant
`• Strong and stiff
`• Wide range of
`properties
`• Moderate cost
`• Moderately resistant to
`UV
`
`• Stronger than ABS or
`PVC
`• Tough
`• Slightly water
`absorbant
`• Abrasion resistant
`
`• Mechanical properties
`compete with nylon
`• Low water absorption
`
`• Optically clear
`• Strength and stiffness
`slightly less than nylon
`
`• Optically clear
`• Tougher than nylon
`• Not quite as strong or
`stiff as nylon
`
`• Fibers for sweaters
`• Fibers as a
`precursor to carbon
`fibers
`• Additive in ABS
`
`• Housings
`(telephones, etc.)
`• Suitcases
`• Small household
`appliances
`
`• Carpet
`• Ropes
`• Gears
`• Cloth Gackets,
`parachutes, etc)
`• Automobile parts
`
`• Gears and
`mechanical parts,
`especially in water
`• Sliding parts
`
`• Soda bottles
`• Film for cassettes
`and videos
`• Automobile trim
`• Fibers for carpets
`and clothes
`
`• High-impact
`windows
`• Impact automobile
`parts
`• Small household
`appliances
`
`• Barex (BP)
`• Orion (DuPont)
`
`• Cycolac (GE)
`• K-resin (Phillips)
`• Novodur (Bayer)
`• Lustran (Bayer)
`• Magnum (Dow)
`• Polyman (Schulman)
`
`• Durathan (Bayer)
`• Ultramid (BASF)
`• Zytel (DuPont)
`• Capron (Allied Signal)
`• Celanese (Hoechst)
`• Kevlar (DuPont)
`• Vydene (Monsanto)
`
`• Celcon (Hoechst)
`• Delrin (DuPont)
`• Ultraform (BASF)
`
`• Kodar (Eastman)
`• Rynite (DuPont)
`• Ultradur (BAS F)
`• Hytrel (DuPont)
`• Impet (Hoechst)
`• Mylar (DuPont)
`• Dacron (DuPont)
`
`• Lexan (GE)
`• Merion (Bayer)
`
`MacNeil Exhibit 2011
`Yita v. MacNeil IP, IPR2020-01139
`Page 3
`
`

`

`PLASTICS
`Materials and Processing
`
`Second Edition
`
`A. Brent Strong
`
`Brigham Young University
`
`Prentice Hall
`Upper Saddle River, New Jersey
`
`Columbus, Ohio
`
`MacNeil Exhibit 2011
`Yita v. MacNeil IP, IPR2020-01139
`Page 4
`
`

`

`Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
`Strong, A. Brent.
`Plastics: materials and processing I A. Brent Strong.-2nd ed.
`p.
`cm.
`Includes bibliographical references and index.
`ISBN 0-13-021626-7
`I. Title.
`1. Plastics.
`TA455.P5S74 2000
`620.1'923-dc21
`
`99-38587
`CIP
`
`Editor: Stephen Helba
`Assistant Editor: Michelle Churma
`Production Editor: Louise N. Sette
`Production Supervision: Clarinda· Publication Services
`Design Coordinator: Karrie Converse-Jones
`Cover Designer: Jason Moore
`Cover art: Proof Positive/Farrowlyne Assoc., Inc.
`Production Manager: Deidra M. Schwartz
`Marketing Manager: Chris Bracken
`
`This book was set in Clearface by The Clarinda Company and was printed and bound by
`RR Donnelley & Sons Company. The cover was printed by Phoenix Color Corp.
`
`©2000, 1996 by Prentice-Hall, Inc.
`Pearson Education
`Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
`
`All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, in any form or by any
`means, without permission in writing from the publisher.
`
`Printed in the United States of America
`
`10 9 8 7 6 5
`
`ISBN: 0-13-021626-7
`
`Prentice-Hall International (UK) Limited, London
`Prentice-Hall of Australia Pty. Limited, Sydney
`Prentice-Hall of Canada, Inc., Toronto
`Prentice-Hall Hispanoamericana, S. A., Mexico
`Prentice-Hall of India Private Limited, New Delhi
`Prentice-Hall of Japan, Inc., Tokyo
`Prentice-Hall (Singapore) Pte. Ltd., Singapore
`Editora Prentice-Hall do Brasil, Ltda., Rio de Janeiro
`
`MacNeil Exhibit 2011
`Yita v. MacNeil IP, IPR2020-01139
`Page 5
`
`

`

`Contents
`
`Chapter 1 Introduction to Plastics
`
`1
`
`1
`
`Definitions of Plastics and Polymers
`History of Plastics
`5
`Raw Material Supply and Pricing
`12
`Strategic Materials
`Plastics Industry
`12
`15
`Uses of Plastics in Modern Society
`Case Study l.l-The Development of Nylon
`
`9
`
`20
`
`Chapter 2 Polymeric Materials (Molecular Viewpoint)
`
`25
`
`26
`
`25
`Introduction
`Fundamentals of Matter
`Bonding
`31
`Basic Concepts in Organic Chemistry
`Polymers
`48
`51
`Formation of Polymers
`Thermoplastics and Thermosets
`Copolymers
`63
`Case Study 2.1-Modifications to Improve Tef1on® Processing
`
`39
`
`62
`
`Chapter 3 Micro Structures in Polymers
`
`75
`
`75
`Introduction
`76
`Amorphous and Crystalline
`Solids, Liquids, and Gases
`79
`81
`Thermal Transitions of Polymers
`Effects of Thermal Changes on Polymers
`Polymer Length
`97
`Molecular Weight
`97
`106
`Melt Index
`
`90
`
`65
`
`iii
`
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`
`

`

`iv
`
`CONTENTS
`
`108
`Shape (Steric) Effects
`Case Study 3.1-Mechanical Properties of Polyethylene (PE) as Functions of Density and
`Melt Index
`110
`
`Chapter 4 Mechanical Properties (Macro Viewpoint)
`
`121
`
`121
`Introduction
`Mechanical Properties in Solids (Elastic Behavior)
`Mechanical Properties in Liquids (Viscous Flow)
`Viscoelastic Materials
`131
`Plastic (High-Strain) Stress-Strain Behavior
`Creep
`141
`Toughness and Impact Strength
`Reinforcements
`146
`Fillers
`147
`,
`148
`Toughness Modifiers
`Case Study 4.1-Testing of Trash Containers to Predict In-use Performance
`
`123
`125
`
`135
`
`143
`
`Chapter 5 Chemical and Physical Properties (Macro Viewpoint)
`
`155
`
`155
`
`,
`155
`Introduction
`Environmental Resistance and Weathering
`Chemical Resistivity and Solubility
`159
`Permeability
`169
`Electrical Properties
`Optical Properties
`182
`Flammability
`185
`Plastics Identification
`Case Study 5. I-Using Carbon Black to Protect Polyethylene from UV Degradation
`
`173
`178
`
`Chapter 6 Thermoplastic Materials (Commodity Plastics)
`
`193
`
`193
`
`Introduction
`194
`Polyethylene (PE)
`Polyethylene Copolymers
`Polypropylene (PP)
`208
`Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC)
`Polystyrene (PS)
`217
`Alloys and Blends
`219
`Case Study 6.1-Typical PVC Formulation
`
`205
`
`211
`
`224
`
`Chapter 7 Thermoplastic Materials (Engineering Plastics)
`
`231
`
`231
`Introduction
`235
`Polyamides or Nylons (PA)
`Acetals or Polyoxymethylenes (POM)
`
`239
`
`148
`
`187
`
`MacNeil Exhibit 2011
`Yita v. MacNeil IP, IPR2020-01139
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`
`

`

`CONTENTS
`
`v
`
`241
`
`Thermoplastic Polyesters (PET/PBT)
`Polycarbonate (PC)
`244
`Acrylics (PAN, PMMA)
`246
`Fluoropolymers (PTFE, FEP, PFA)
`High-Performance Thermoplastics
`Cellulosics
`254
`Case Study 7.l-Making Nonstick Electrosurgical Blades
`
`248
`252
`
`255
`
`Chapterc) Thermoset Materials
`
`263
`
`263
`Introduction
`265
`Crosslinking
`Thermoset Types, General Properties, and Uses
`Phenolics (PF)
`274
`276
`Amino Plastics (UF and MF)
`Polyester Thermosets (TS) or Unsaturated Polyesters (UP)
`Epoxies (EP)
`287
`291
`Thermoset Polimides
`292
`Polyurethanes (PUR)
`Case Study 8.1-Thermoset Composites for Wrapping Utility Poles
`
`272
`
`279
`
`Chapter 9 Elastomeric (Rubber) Material
`
`303
`
`303
`Introduction
`307
`Aliphatic Thermoset Elastomers
`Thermoplastic Elastomers (EPM and EPDM)
`Fluoroelastomers
`314
`Silicones
`315
`317
`Processing of Elastomers
`Case Study 9.1-Elastomeric Lining for a Pump
`
`313
`
`320
`
`Chapter 10 Designing with Plastics
`
`327
`
`327
`
`330
`
`331
`
`Design Methodology
`Layout/Drawing
`Constraints
`336
`Material Choice
`341
`Prototyping
`Case Study 10.1-Design of Plastic Stakes for Concrete Tilt-up Walls
`
`295
`
`344
`
`Chapter 11 Extrusion Process
`
`351
`
`351
`Introduction
`355
`Equipment
`Normal Operation and Control of the Process
`Extrusion Problems and Troubleshooting
`
`370
`
`378
`
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`Page 8
`
`

`

`vi
`
`CONTENTS
`
`Material and Product Considerations
`Postextrusion Forming
`403
`Coextrusion
`403
`Case Study 11.1-Extrusion of Irrigation Tubing
`
`386
`
`406
`
`Chapter 12 Injection Molding Process
`
`419
`
`419
`Introduction
`421
`Equipment
`Material and Product Considerations
`Operations and Control
`454
`459
`Special Injection Molding Processes
`446
`Modeling and Computer-aided Mold-flow Analysis
`Case Study 12.1-Estimating the Cost of an Injection Molded Pocket Knife
`Case Study 12.2-Mold Costs and Selection
`474
`
`447
`
`468
`
`Chapter 13 Blow Molding
`
`483
`
`483
`Introduction
`494
`Molds and Dies
`497
`Plant Concepts
`Product Considerations
`499
`501
`Operation and Control
`Case Study 13.1-Making Soda Pop Bottles
`
`503
`
`Chapter 14 Thermoforming Process
`
`509
`
`510
`
`509
`Introduction
`Forming Processes
`Equipment
`524
`Product Considerations
`528
`Operation and Control
`534
`Case Study 14.1-Continuous Thermoforming
`
`536
`
`Chapter 15 Rotational Molding Process
`
`543
`
`543
`Introduction
`549
`Equipment
`551
`Product Considerations
`558
`Operation and Control of the Process
`Case Study 15.1-Trash Cart Manufacturing
`
`561
`
`MacNeil Exhibit 2011
`Yita v. MacNeil IP, IPR2020-01139
`Page 9
`
`

`

`CONTENTS
`
`vii
`
`Chapter 16 Casting Processes
`
`567
`
`569
`
`567
`
`Introduction
`Casting Processes
`Equipment
`578
`580
`Product Considerations
`582
`Operation and Control of the Casting Process
`Case Study 16.l-Casting a Polyester Thermoset Part in a Silicone Mold
`
`584
`
`Chapter 17 Foaming Processes
`
`589
`
`589
`Introduction
`Processes to Create Foams in Resins
`Processes to Shape and Solidify Foams
`Rebond
`603
`603
`Product Considerations
`608
`Control and Operation
`Case Study 17.l-Foam Insulation
`
`591
`592
`
`609
`
`Chapter (i8) Compression and Transfer Molding Processes
`
`j
`
`615
`
`615
`
`Compression Molding
`624
`Transfer Molding
`629
`Product Considerations
`629
`Control and Operation
`633
`Reaction Injection Molding (RIM)
`634
`Cold Forming, Sintering, and Ram Extrusion
`Case Study 18.1-Manufacture of Automobile Body Panels
`
`636
`
`ChaPter(~ Polymeric Composite Materials and Processes
`
`643
`
`643
`Introduction
`651
`Matrix Materials
`653
`Reinforcements
`Manufacturing Methods for Composite Parts
`Plant Concepts
`671
`Case Study 19.1-Filament Winding of the Beech Starship Airplane Fuselage
`
`658
`
`Chapter 20 Radiation Processes
`
`681
`
`681
`Introduction
`685
`Equipment and Process
`Properties, Materials, and Applications
`690
`693
`Plasma Polymerization and Reactions
`Case Study 20.l-Making Shrink-Tubing Using Electron Beam Crosslinking
`
`674
`
`697
`
`MacNeil Exhibit 2011
`Yita v. MacNeil IP, IPR2020-01139
`Page 10
`
`

`

`vi
`
`CONTENTS
`
`Material and Product Considerations
`403
`Postextrusion Forming
`Coextrusion
`403
`Case Study 11.1-Extrusion of Irrigation Tubing
`
`386
`
`406
`
`Chapter 12 Injection Molding Process
`
`419
`
`419
`Introduction
`421
`Equipment
`Material and Product Considerations
`Operations and Control
`454
`459
`Special Injection Molding Processes
`446
`Modeling and Computer-aided Mold-flow Analysis
`Case Study 12.1-Estimating the Cost of an Injection Molded Pocket Knife
`Case Study 12.2-Mold Costs and Selection
`474
`
`447
`
`468
`
`Chapter 13 Blow Molding
`
`483
`
`483
`Introduction
`494
`Molds and Dies
`497
`Plant Concepts
`Product Considerations
`499
`501
`Operation and Control
`Case Study 13.1-Making Soda Pop Bottles
`
`503
`
`Chapter 14 Thermoforming Process
`
`509
`
`510
`
`509
`Introduction
`Forming Processes
`Equipment
`524
`528
`Product Considerations
`534
`Operation and Control
`Case Study 14.1-Continuous Thermoforming
`
`536
`
`Chapter 15 Rotational Molding Process
`
`543
`
`543
`Introduction
`549
`Equipment
`551
`Product Considerations
`558
`Operation and Control of the Process
`Case Study 15.1-Trash Cart Manufacturing
`
`561
`
`MacNeil Exhibit 2011
`Yita v. MacNeil IP, IPR2020-01139
`Page 11
`
`

`

`CONTENTS
`
`vii
`
`Chapter 16 Casting Processes
`
`567
`
`569
`
`567
`
`Introduction
`Casting Processes
`Equipment
`578
`580
`Product Considerations
`582
`Operation and Control of the Casting Process
`Case Study 16.1-Casting a Polyester Thermoset Part in a Silicone Mold
`
`584
`
`Chapter 17 Foaming Processes
`
`589
`
`589
`Introduction
`Processes to Create Foams in Resins
`Processes to Shape and Solidify Foams
`Rebond
`603
`603
`Product Considerations
`608
`Control and Operation
`Case Study 17.1-Foam Insulation
`
`591
`592
`
`609
`
`Chapter (is) Compression and Transfer Molding Processes
`
`/
`
`615
`
`615
`
`Compression Molding
`624
`Transfer Molding
`Product Considerations
`629
`629
`Control and Operation
`633
`Reaction Injection Molding (RIM)
`634
`Cold Forming, Sintering, and Ram Extrusion
`Case Study 18. I-Manufacture of Automobile Body Panels
`
`636
`
`ChapterCY Polymeric Composite Materials and Processes
`
`643
`
`643
`Introduction
`651
`Matrix Materials
`653
`Reinforcements
`Manufacturing Methods for Composite Parts
`Plant Concepts
`671
`Case Study 19.1-Filament Winding of the Beech Starship Airplane Fuselage
`
`658
`
`Chapter 20 Radiation Processes
`
`681
`
`681
`Introduction
`685
`Equipment and Process
`Properties, Materials, and Applications
`690
`693
`Plasma Polymerization and Reactions
`Case Study 20.1-Making Shrink-Tubing Using Electron Beam Crosslinking
`
`674
`
`697
`
`MacNeil Exhibit 2011
`Yita v. MacNeil IP, IPR2020-01139
`Page 12
`
`

`

`viii
`
`CONTENTS
`
`Chapter 21 Finishing and Assembly
`
`703
`
`703
`
`703
`Introduction
`Runner System Trimming and Flash Removal
`Machining
`705
`Nontraditional Machining
`Shaping (Postmold Forming)
`Mechanical Joining and Assembly
`Adhesive Bonding
`714
`Nonadhesive Bonding
`720
`Joint Design
`725
`726
`Coating and Decorating
`Case Study 21.1-Comparison of Adhesive-Bonded and Metal Attachments
`
`708
`709
`
`710
`
`732
`
`Chapter 22 Environmental Aspects of Plastics
`
`739
`
`739
`
`740
`742
`
`Introduction
`Source Reduction
`Recycling of Plastics
`Regeneration
`749
`Degradation
`749
`Landfills
`750
`Incineration
`752
`Total Product Life Cycle
`Future
`757
`Case Study 22.1-Recycling Solid Wastes
`
`753
`
`758
`
`Chapter 23 Operations
`
`765
`
`765
`Introduction
`765
`Safety and Cleanliness
`Plastic Resin Handling, Conveying, and Drying
`Plant Layout
`770
`771
`Quality Assurance
`Case Study 23.1-Establishing QC for a PET Bottle Plant
`
`768
`
`772
`
`Appendix 1 Cost Estimating Form for Injection Molding
`
`777
`
`Appendix 2 Plastics Design/Selection Matrix
`
`778
`
`Answers to Selected Questions
`
`779
`
`Index
`
`801
`
`MacNeil Exhibit 2011
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`Page 13
`
`

`

`Preface
`
`This edition retains the general objectives and format of the previous edition with some
`important additions and reorganizations to clarify some topics. The principal objective of
`Plastics: Materials and Processing, Second Edition, is to introduce plastics to a broad
`cross section of readers who have a need to gain, improve, or refresh their knowledge of
`plastics. The book is intended for students of technology, engineering technology, and en(cid:173)
`gineering, and for professionals in the plastics industry (such as technical and nontechni(cid:173)
`cal managers, staff in plastics companies, foremen, and operators). The text emphasizes
`the fundamentals of plastics materials and processing, yet it is detailed enough to be a
`valuable resource for future reference. This combination of fundamentals and details
`makes the book ideal as a textbook for an introductory course in plastics. The instructor
`can emphasize those topics that have special application for the class and can also assign
`additional reading to enhance the overall knowledge of the student in the entire field of
`plastics technology. The book is also an excellent resource for seminars in plastics tech(cid:173)
`nology, as well as for company courses and personal study.
`The book is not, however, a reference for design data and plastic properties. That role
`is fulfilled adequately by the several encyclopedias, handbooks of plastics, and computer
`databases that are published regularly and therefore can present more up-to-date data.
`The text parallels an introductory plastics course taught for many years at Brigham
`Young University. (Hence, the text itself, the objectives, problems, and format have been
`tried in practice and have been shown to help students succeed.) This is the only plastics
`course available for most of these manufacturing engineering and technology students,
`who have reported its value during later work experience in the plastics industry. The text
`provides a proper foundation for advanced courses in polymer synthesis, polymer proper(cid:173)
`ties, and plastics processing.
`A background and basic understanding of high school or freshman chemistry, physics,
`and mathematics is suggested. A few important mathematical formulas are presented and
`used to show how the various variables are related, to enable important operational cal(cid:173)
`culations to be made, and to illustrate the mathematical theory of key plastic properties.
`Molecular (chemical) formulas for many of the plastics materials are given, along with an
`introduction of basic organic chemistry that provides the reader the necessary background
`to readily understand molecular formulas. As the reader gains experience in plastics, these
`chemical formulas will serve as valuable references to a deeper understanding of the rela(cid:173)
`tionships among plastic structure, properties, and processing.
`Plastics is a category of materials that traditionally includes commercial and engineer(cid:173)
`ing thermoplastics and thermosets. If a broad view of plastics is taken, elastomers and
`highly modified natural polymers can also be included. This book takes the broad view, thus
`allowing comparisons of similar concepts and principles within all these related materials.
`
`ix
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`x
`
`PREFACE
`
`Plastics are introduced at three levels of focus: (1) the molecular, (2) the micro (poly(cid:173)
`mer chains and crystals), and (3) the macro (physical properties). Through knowledge of
`all three levels, readers can understand and predict the properties of the various plastics
`and their performance in products. Manufacturing methods for plastics and the changes
`in plastics properties that result from manufacturing are also related to the three levels.
`Each chapter in the book has an introductory section that describes the major con(cid:173)
`cepts of the chapter. The chapter then expounds the subject in qualitative and limited (no
`derivations) quantitative terms. Extensive figures and tables give visual and comparative
`understanding to the concepts. At the end of each chapter, a case study highlights in de(cid:173)
`tail some important aspect of the chapter in a specific circumstance. Also at the end of the
`chapter is a summary of the major concepts and objectives. Questions then follow to test
`the reader's understanding (rather than mere recollection) of the principles presented in
`the chapter. A list of references is provided to assist the student in finding additional ma(cid:173)
`terial on the subject of the chapter.
`The learning of plastics is directly connected with the vocabulary of plastics. Not only
`are the concepts often expressed in unique terms, but the industry communicates in these
`terms. Therefore, terms that have unique meanings in plastics technology are italicized
`when they are introduced in the body of the text and defined briefly when they are used.
`Furthermore, all of these new terms are included in the index for easy reference. A valu(cid:173)
`able cost estimating form for injection molding parts is also included in Appendix 1.
`Plastics has many highly interrelated topics. Ideally, topics such as molecular interac(cid:173)
`tions, crystallinity, thermal transitions, steric effects, processing methods, and product ap(cid:173)
`plications should all be perceived simultaneously in order to gain the best appreciation of
`each. Simultaneous perception is, however, very difficult when the topics are new. This book,
`of necessity, presents the material in a linear fashion. However, for best understanding, the
`book should be reexamined in a rapid, overall reading so that the whole picture of plastics
`can be appreciated. The structure of the book-with the chapter outlines and summaries,
`case studies, questions, and appendix-is intended to assist in gaining that overall view.
`New Features
`In this new edition, some concepts have been reorganized so that the flow is easier for the
`student. For instance, the tooling chapter of the first edition has been distributed into
`tooling sections in each of the processing chapters, thus integrating tooling and process(cid:173)
`ing for each process. Similarly, the testing section has been put into the chapters where
`properties of plastics are discussed. The chapter on design has been moved to immediately
`follow the chapters on properties, thus giving an immediate example of how the proper(cid:173)
`ties can be used in specific examples.
`The second edition has several new charts and figures, which not only improve on
`previous charts but also allow some concepts to be understood in a broader overall view,
`often better than was done with text only. A glossary of new terms has been added to each
`chapter.
`A form (Design Matrix) that can be copied and used for designing new plastic parts has
`been added in Appendix 2. A case study in the chapter on design illustrates, in detail, how
`to use this form.
`Brief characteristics of the major plastics are printed inside the front and back covers
`for easy reference and comparison.
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`Acknowledgments
`
`I am grateful for the insightful help from the following reviewers: John D. Colluccini,
`Fitchburg State College; Gary San Miguel, Texas State Technical College; Barry G. David,
`Millersville University; James T. Johnson, Sinclair Community College; David H. Devier,
`Ohio Northern University; Mark L. Nowak, California University of Pennsylvania; and
`Charles L. Hamermesh, Society for the Advancement of Material and Process Engineering.
`I also thank the staff of the Manufacturing Engineering and Engineering Technology De(cid:173)
`partment at Brigham Young University for their assistance in the preparation of the text.
`Special thanks to Dannie King Graves, Brenda Baker, Alisa Corfield, Lindsey Dickson To(cid:173)
`bler, Camille Call Whiting, Janelle Wakefield, Chad Woolf, Jan Martindale, and Ruth Ann
`Lowe for help with typing and illustrations. Thanks also to Kent Kohkonen, Roger Turley,
`Norman Lee, David Sorensen, Ra'ed Al-Zubi, Brian Mansure, and Scott Hansen for their
`contributions. I also appreciate the encouragement and understanding given by my fam(cid:173)
`ily and friends during the writing of this book.
`Thanks to the reviewers who assisted in the preparation of the second edition: John D.
`Colluccini, University of Massachusetts, Lowell (adjunct); David H. Devier, Owens Com(cid:173)
`munity College; James T. Johnson, Sinclair Community College; and Roy D. Thornock,
`Weber State Unviersity.
`Thanks also to Holly Henjum, Michelle Churma, and, especially, Stephen Helba, an ed(cid:173)
`itor who has helped me with this and several other books.
`
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`INTRODUCTION TO PLASTICS
`
`========CHAPTEROVER~EW=================================
`This chapter examines the following concepts:
`• Definitions of plastics and polymers
`• History of plastics
`• Raw material supply and pricing
`• Strategic materials
`• The plastics industry
`• Uses of plastics in modern society
`
`DEFINITIONS OF PLASTICS AND POLYMERS
`
`Plastics is not a uniformly defined term. Some prefer to define plastics in a relatively nar(cid:173)
`row sense, focusing on specific properties (such as formability). Others prefer to define
`plastics more broadly, viewing collectively properties, processing, and design characteris(cid:173)
`tics of a group of related materials. This book uses a relatively broad definition, with the
`objective of assisting the reader to appreciate the fundamental similarities between a large
`group of related materials.
`Plastics are materials composed principally of large molecules (polymers)
`that are synthetically made or, if naturally occurring, are highly modified. This
`definition of plastics can be illustrated in a systematic classification diagram, as shown in
`Figure 1.1. In addition to their similar nature as synthetic polymers, all plastic materi(cid:173)
`als have the property that at some stage, they have been or can be readily
`formed or molded into a useful shape. (The word plastic comes from the Greek plas(cid:173)
`tikos, which means to form or mold.)
`As Figure 1.1 shows, all materials can be classified as gases, simple liquids, or solids,
`with the realization that most materials can be converted from one state to another
`through heating or cooling. If only materials that are solids at normal temperatures are
`examined, three major types of materials are encountered: metals, polymers, and ceram(cid:173)
`ics. The polymer materials can be further divided into synthetic polymers and natural
`
`1
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`2
`
`CHAPTER ONE
`
`I
`I Gases
`
`1
`
`i
`
`I
`Metals
`
`II
`
`I
`
`All Materials
`I
`I
`I Simple
`I
`
`Liquids
`
`~
`
`I
`
`I
`
`Solids
`T
`
`'
`
`natural rubber, hair, skin)
`
`Polymers
`
`[1
`~l
`
`....
`
`I
`Polymers
`I Ceramics
`(Polymeric Molecules)
`I
`I
`I
`(e.g., wood, leather, cotton, I Natural
`I Synthetic
`l Polymers
`_'~ ~ -~ --------------------------------- J_
`I J ---,,_
`I
`----
`I
`I Modified
`IDO not occur
`Occur naturally but
`" \
`naturally
`made by non-
`Natural
`I
`natural process
`/
`(e.g., celluloid or cellophane) /./
`_-
`
`. . . . - / /
`
`//
`[
`\
`',(~.g., nylon, polyester, polyethylene)
`"
`
`-- ----- ---
`
`(e.g., synthetic rubber)
`
`---
`
`PLASTICS
`(If shaped or molded)
`
`--
`
`---
`
`Figure 1.1 Diagram illustrating the definition of plastics.
`
`polymers. Most synthetic polymers are those that do not occur naturally and are repre(cid:173)
`sented by materials such as nylon, polyethylene, and polyester. Some synthetic polymers
`could be manufactured copies of naturally occurring materials (such as synthetic rubber)
`or even natural polymers that have been so radically modified that they no longer possess
`the general properties of the original natural polymer, such as celluloid or cellophane,
`which are derived from cellulose. Therefore, natural rubber is not a plastic but is consid(cid:173)
`ered as a reference material in the chapter on elastomers. (Some narrow definitions of
`plastics exclude all elastomers from the plastics group.) Hence, by our definition, plastics
`include all non-naturally occurring polymers, all synthetic elastomers, and all
`highly modified natural polymers, as shown in the circled area within Figure 1.1.
`
`Definition of Polymers
`
`A detailed explanation of polymers is given in the chapter on the molecular nature of mate(cid:173)
`rials. However, a simple understanding of polymers can be gained by imagining them to be
`like a chain or, perhaps, a string of pearls where the individual pearls represent small mol-
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`Introduction to Plastics
`
`3
`
`ecules that are chemically bonded together. Therefore, a polymer is a molecule made
`up of smaller molecules that are joined together by chemical bonds. The word
`polymer means many parts or units. The parts or units are the small molecules that com(cid:173)
`bine. The result of the combination is, of course, a chain like molecule (polymer). Usually
`the polymer chains are long, often consisting of hundreds of units, but polymers consisting
`of only a few units linked together are also known and can be commercially valuable.
`All molecules, whether the small type or the large type that result when particular
`small molecules join together, are made up of atoms (such as carbon, hydrogen, oxygen,
`or nitrogen). When any small molecule is formed, the atoms join together into a specific
`arrangement that is characteristic of the particular molecule. The types of atoms and their
`arrangement determine the properties of the molecule. For instance, the small molecule
`called methane (natural gas) always has one carbon and four hydrogens, which are
`arranged in a tetrahedral (pyramid) shape. Another small molecule, ethylene, is a gas de(cid:173)
`rived from petroleum that always has two carbons and four hydrogens arranged so that
`two hydrogens are connected to each carbon and the carbons are also linked to one an(cid:173)
`other in a planar arrangement. Ethylene is one type of small molecule that can be com(cid:173)
`bined into very long chains to make polymers (polymeric molecules), whereas methane
`cannot be readily combined to form polymers. Plainly ethylene and methane are different
`small molecules and have different chemical properties.
`Therefore, the chemical properties of a molecule determine the types of reactions into
`which the molecule can enter. In the example of ethylene and methane, the ethylene is
`more chemically reactive under the conditions needed to form polymers. The reasons for
`this chemical reactivity and the nature of the chemical reactions that take place are a
`major study of chemists and are beyond the scope of this book. However, some specific ex(cid:173)
`amples are given in the chapter on the molecular (chemical) nature of polymers, espe(cid:173)
`cially concerning the reactions that take place when small molecules combine to form
`polymers. For now, the polymer-forming process can be understood in general terms by
`examining Figure 1.2, where the combining of small molecules to create a polymer is de(cid:173)
`picted. Note that each small molecule has two reactive forces, thus allowing each small
`molecule to be bonded to two others and a long chain to be formed.
`The chains formed are called polymers, or polymeric molecules. Another term that is
`widely applied to polymeric molecules is macromolecules (from the Greek makros, mean(cid:173)
`ing long or large). The chains become new molecules with properties that are different
`from those of the original small molecules, even though the individual units might all be
`the same. These molecular chains can be short, in which case the molecule is likely to be
`a liquid at room temperature. These short molecular chains are sometimes called
`oligomers. An example of a short-chain molecule would be cooking oil. Long-chain mole(cid:173)
`cules are usually solids or viscous liquids. When the chains are long, often containing
`thousands of units, the polymer could be a plastic (provided ot