CRC Handbook
`
`of
`
`Food
`
`Additives
`
`Second Editon
`
`Volume I
`
`EDITOR
`
`Thomas E. Furia
`President
`
`Int‘echmark Corporation
`Palo Alto, California
`
`@
`
`CRC Press, Inc.
`Boca Raton, Florida
`
`~1
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`// /
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`

`

`This book represents information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reprinted mate-
`rial is quoted with permission, and sources are indicated. A wide variety of references are listed. Every
`reasonable effort has been made to give reliable data and information, but the author and the publisher
`cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or for the consequences of their use.
`
`All rights reserved. This book, or any parts thereof, may not be reproduced in any form without written
`consent from the publisher.
`
`Direct all inquiries to CRC Press, lnc., 2000 NW. 24th Street, Boca Raton, Florida 33431.
`
`© 1968, 1972 by CRC Press, Inc.
`
`Second Printing, 1975
`Third Printing, 1977
`Fourth Printing, 1981
`
`International Standard Book Number O-8493—542-X
`Former International Standard Book Number 0-87819-542-4
`
`Library of Congress Card Number 68-2174l
`Printed in the United States
`
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`

`

`CHAPTER 10
`
`Polyhydric Alcohols
`
`William C. Griffin
`Associate Director
`
`Product Development
`
`and
`
`Matthew J. Lynch
`Development Manager
`Product Development
`
`ICI America Inc.
`Atlas Chemicals Division
`
`Wilmington, Delaware
`
`Introduction
`
`Polyhydric alcohols, or polyols, are valuable aids in formulating a wide
`range of food products. When present naturally, or when added during pro-
`cessing, they can impart one or more of several beneficial characteristics.
`These effects include crystallization retardation, improvement of stability on
`aging, control of viscosity or bodying, preservation, solvency, moisture
`retention, and others.3”99"°2-”°’”°
`
`Natural Occurrence
`
`Many of the commonly used polyhydric alcohols occur in nature. The
`frequency of occurrence appears to be directly related to the carbon-chain
`length of the polyol. Two- and three-carbon polyols rarely, if ever, occur in
`
`431
`
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`

`432
`
`Handbook of Food Additives
`
`nature; four— and five-carbon polyols occur occasionally; six-carbon polyols
`have been found in many instances; and seven-carbon polyols have been
`observed in only a few cases. This frequency distribution is probably related
`to the corresponding sugars and their presence in nature, with some specific
`exceptions. Only one of the tetritols and two of the pentitols have not been
`observed in natural foods.106
`
`Butylene glycol and glycerine are both reported as occurring in fermented
`products. The presence of 2,3-butylene glycol in tomato conserves has been
`reported.38 Glycerine has been reported to occur in fermented products such
`as wines and beers.“6 The isomer erythritol occurs in algae,”’152 grasses,“ and
`lichens.“79 In the group of polyols known as pentitols, d-arabitol and ribitol
`are found in nature. Arabitol is reported in lichens‘“ and in a species of mush-
`room,“ and ribitol is reported in plants.”""65 Xylose (wood sugar) is one of the
`most abundant natural sugars in the plant world. However, xylitol, its corres-
`ponding polyhydric alcohol, has not been found.”7
`The hexitols, or six-carbon polyols, are the most widespread.”8 Sorbitol
`was reported in 1877, when it was isolated from the juice of the berries of the
`mountain ash tree.”123 It has since been reported in other fruit berriesso and
`in many fruits, including pears, apples, cherries, prunes, peaches, and apri-
`cots,”6 in red seaweed,” and in Sorbus commixta.a Strain has presented a listing
`of a large number of plants in which the sorbitol content was determined.146
`Mannitol was the first crystalline polyol discovered;126 and, since it is crystal-
`line, it frequently occurs in plant exudates.“"°’ The sap exudate from a tree
`was the Italian commercial source of mannitol for many years.2‘-”°’151 Mannitol
`is also present in seaweed21 and grasses."
`The seven-carbon heptitols are considerably less prevalent in nature.
`Volemitol is found in algae,“ lichen,104 mushrooms,” and plants of the prim-
`rose family." Perseitol is found in avocados.”2-“3
`
`Definition
`
`The term polyols in this discussion will be restricted to those molecules
`that have two or more hydroxyl groups and have only hydroxyl groups. This
`will exclude sugars, although they have many hydroxyl groups and, in some
`instances, exhibit similar properties.17 The chief difference noted between
`polyols and sugars is related to the aldehyde linkage present in the sugars.
`As a class polyols are more stable chemically and thermally than sugars.
`They are usually more expensive than sugars; hence, the food industry demands
`that a polyol contribute a notable desired property to the final product. For
`these reasons we shall not treat sugars as polyhydric alcohols.
`Polyhydric alcohols for our use then are defined as derivatives of aliphatic
`hydrocarbons formed by the replacement of two or more hydrogen atoms with
`two or more monovalent hydroxyl groups, each being attached to a different
`carbon atom.
`Both glycols that we shall consider—propylene glycol and butylene glycol—
`have a longer carbon-chain length than the number of hydroxyl groups. The
`balance of the polyhydric alcohols to be discussed—triols to heptitols—have
`an equal number of hydroxyl groups and carbon atoms.
`While the polyhydric alcohol family continues to challenge the curiosity
`of the scientist, only a few polyols are of actual commercial importance in the
`food industry—propylene glycol, glycerol, sorbitol, and mannitol.
`
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`

`Polyhydric Alcohols
`
`433
`
`Properties of Polyhydric Alcohols
`
`The properties of polyhydric alcohols may be summed up quite briefly by
`stating that they are generally water-soluble, hygroscopic materials that
`exhibit a moderate viscosity at high concentrations in water. For the most
`part polyols exhibit a sweet taste ranging in sweetness from less than half that
`of sugar to slightly higher. These properties are shown schematically in
`Figure 1.
`
`
`
`
`
`—-DENSITY-70%M.)SOLUTION-at25’C
`
`O
`
`5
`
`
`
`
`
`-~---VISCOSITY-70%(wt)SOLUTION—cp.0125°C
`
`
`PROPYLENE
`
`GLYGOL
`
`BLYCERIN
`
`no
`
`so
`
`no
`no
`Ito
`too
`MOLECULAR WEIGHT
`
`[.0
`
`too
`
`
`
`
`
`-'-FREEZINGPOINT-'C
`
`Fig. 1.
`
`Polyhydric alcohol behavior vs. molecular weight.
`
`Table 1 shows a comparison of the pr0perties of the four commercial poly-
`hydric alcohols approved for use in foods.* They are all permitted in un-
`standardized foods, provided the amount used does not exceed that reasonably
`required to accomplish the intended physical or technical effect. Of course,
`they are not permitted in standardized foods, unless the standard of identity
`permits their use. Each case for a standardized food must be investigated
`separately.
`Data in Table 1 show that as the molecular weight increases, the melting
`points, boiling points and viscosities generally increase. It has also been ob-
`served that with increasing molecular weight solvent properties for non-polar
`
`* In addition (A) §121.1057: Polyethylene glycol 6000 is permitted (1) as a binder in plasticizing
`agents, (2) as an adjuvant in tablet coatings, and (3) as an adjuvant to improve flavor and body
`work with non-nutritive sweeteners; (B) §121.1114: Xylitol is permitted in some special dietary uses.
`
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`

`434
`
`Handbook'of Food Additives
`
`TABLE |
`
`Properties of Polyhydric Alcohols and Sugars
`
`
`Propylene
`Glycol
`Glycerine
`Sorbitol
`Marmitol
`
`
`Molecular Weight
`Melting Point °C
`
`76
`Supercools
`
`92
`18.6
`
`Boiling Point °C 760 mm
`
`Density—25°C
`Viscosity cp. 25°C
`Viscosity 70% solution 25°C
`
`187
`
`l . 036
`44.0
`10
`
`290°C
`Decomposes
`l .2613
`954
`17
`
`182
`Metastable
`93
`
`182
`166
`
`Decomposes
`
`Decomposes
`
`1 .49
`Solid
`110
`
`Med-Low
`Poor
`71%
`
`1 .49
`Solid
`Insoluble
`(Crystallizel)
`Low
`Poor
`22%
`
`Stable
`Sweet
`
`Hygroscopicity
`Solvency (for oils)
`Solubility‘ in water @25°C
`High Temperature Resistance
`
`Taste
`
`High
`Good
`Infinite
`Stable,
`Volatile
`Bitter
`
`Med-High
`Fair
`Infinite
`Stable,
`Sl. Volatile
`81. Sweet
`
`Stable
`Cool,
`Sweet
`
`
`‘ grams/100 g, water.
`
`materials decrease. While generalizations of this type are useful, detailed
`comparative studies have been made and it is now possible to recommend,
`with some assurance, a specific polyol to contribute a certain function or prop-
`erty to a food. These studies have revealed that polyhydric alcohols act in a
`special way, each having its own functionality profile.
`Most sugars have properties quite similar to that of high molecular weight
`polyols. However, though they are polyhydroxy compounds they also contain
`aldehyde linkages that adversely afi'ect their high temperature stability.
`Of the various properties of polyols described in Table 1, those most impor-
`tant in food processing are water solubility, hygroscopicity, viscosity, and taste.
`Water Solubility Water solubility ofthe typical polyhydric alcohols appears
`to be correlated with molecular weight, as well as with crystalline structure
`and melting point. For example, the lower-molecular-weight polyols, glycerine
`and, although it is not generally considered in this discussion because of
`toxicity, ethylene glycol, are infinitely water soluble. As the molecular weight
`increases, the tendency toward crystallization increases and inherent solu-
`bility decreases; common hexitols, for example, range in water solubility from
`sorbitol at a maximum of 70—75% weight at room temperature to dulcitol at
`less than 10% at room temperature. The known solubilities of polyols in water
`are presented in Table 2. The chance to combine polyols of different water
`solubilities and different viscosities, as well as those with different crystalliza-
`tion characteristics, is a prime tool in modifying crystallization in foods.
`Hygroscopicity The hygroscopicity, or the ability to absorb and retain
`water under conditions of medium and high relative humidity, also varies
`partially according to molecular weight. Generally, the higher the molecular
`weight, the less hygroscopic the polyol, although xylitol appears to be an
`
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`

`Polyhydric Alcohols
`
`435
`
`TABLE 2
`
`Solubility of Polyols in Water
`
`Polyol
`
`Propylene Glycol
`Glycerol
`Erythritol
`Sorbitol
`Mannitol
`
`Water Solubility,
`9/100 ml water,
`25°C
`
`00
`00
`75
`251
`22
`
`75
`
`
`
`RelativeHumidity 0| 0
`
`NIn O
`
`0
`
`25
`
`50
`
`75
`
`100
`
`CURVE
`A
`B
`C
`D
`
`WI % Solids of Equilibrium
`TYPE
`COMPOUND
`INORGANIC
`CALCIUM CHLORIDE
`ORGANIC
`SORBITOL
`ORGANIC
`UREA
`METAL-ORGANIC
`SODIUM LACTATE
`
`Fig. 2. Comparative hygroscopiciiies.
`
`Source: W. C. Griffin, R. W. Behrens, and S, T. Cross,
`1952, J. Soc. Cosmel. Chaim, 3:5.
`
`exception. A non-hygroscopic material does not imbibe water even at high
`humidities. Many inorganic substances exhibit a “stepwise” humectant
`action, depending on water of crystallization (Figure 2). Hygroscopic materials
`such as polyols show a smooth transition curve holding more and more water
`as the humidity increases.““"‘3-”‘v176 Many organic materials, such as flour,
`cellulose, and protein, show a modified stepwise curve, holding about 13%
`
`(:: 5%) moisture over a large range of humidity.“
`Figure 3 shows the hygroscopicity for the polyols listed in Table 1. The
`dotted line, in both instances, is invert sugar, which is only slightly hygro-
`scopic. Cane sugar (sucrose) is even less hygroscopic, because it is relatively
`more crystalline. The effect of crystallization is shown in Figure 3, in the com-
`parison of sorbitol and mannitol. Mannitol, when crystallized (which applies
`to most of the humidity range), exhibits a very low hygroscopicity, making it
`useful as a nutritive powder that is stable at high humidity.171
`
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`

`436
`
`Handbook of Food Additives
`
`Pounds of Water Held by 100 lb of Polyol
`l
`l
`|
`|
`|
`l
`300200150100 75
`50
`25
`
`10
`
`100-
`
`
`
`30 [-
`20
`
`
`
`RelativeHumidity-%
`
`40 — —-— ELYEIN/Nf
`— -— PWPVLENE 6170“
`
`l
`
`
`
`— — -- sans/nu [sou/nan!
`— — — cursmL/m- 50mm
`-------- mm" 5m»
`— — ' CWSYILUNE MNMWL
`
` o | 1 1 L L | J
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`80
`0
`10
`20
`30
`40
`50
`60
`70
`Wt % Solids at Equilibrium
`
`90
`
`100
`
`Fig. 3. Comparative equilibrium hygro-
`scopicities of polyols.
`
`For comparison, consider the usual polyols versus a similar food raw
`material, sugar. Equilibrium data for glycerine, invert sugar, and sorbitol are
`presented in Figure 3.
`Proteins, cellulose, and similar products that exhibit a “shelf” in their
`hygroscopicity at about 13% water actually show a diminution in moisture-
`holding capacity when small amounts of polyol are added; this is recovered only
`when the amount of polyol becomes appreciable with relation to the other
`ingredients.“
`to hygroscopicity is whether static
`A further consideration with respect
`(equilibrium) or dynamic moisture control is the point at issue. Most reported
`data, as in Figures 2 and 3, are equilibrium values. Seldom is it practical to
`add sufficient polyol to achieve adequate moisture levels or protection from
`evaporation at low humidities, or even moderate humidities. This is true pri-
`marily because foods inherently have high moisture levels to provide the de-
`sired texture, taste, and mouthfeel.
`On the other hand, polyols in many instances can help control the rate
`of moisture gain and loss“,171 Generally, the higher the molecular weight,
`the lower the rate of change (Figure 5). Note, though, that these rate change
`times are short term hours, not days or weeks; and moisture levels over longer
`periods of time are not controlled under these circumstances.
`Dynamic hygroscopicity, the rate with which moisture is gained or lost, is
`far more difficult to measure accurately. Hygroscopicity is often studied by
`placing a small amount of liquid, unstirred, in a crystallizing dish or beaker
`and exposing it to a higher or lower humidity (Figure 4A). If the sample is care-
`fully examined after this exposure, striation lines will be observed showing
`that the surface concentration has changed because of either gain or loss
`(Figure 4B). At this point change in weight of the sample is related not only to
`the rate of gain or loss of moisture at the surface of the sample but also to the
`rate of moisture transfer within the bulk of the sample, which is, in many
`instances, the controlling function. The ideal situation would be to present
`
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`

`Polyhydric Alcohols
`
`437
`
`Q Q
`
`LAYER 0F POLYOL-AT START
`0? TEST.
`
`STRIATION LAYERS VISIBLE
`IN POLYOL AFTER EXPOSURE
`SHOWS WEIGHT GAIN OR LOSS
`IS NOT REPRESENTATIVE OF
`TOTAL SAMPLE.
`
` C
`
`THEORETICAL METHOD OF
`ELIMINATIHO STRIATION LINES-
`LAYER OF POLYOL ON BOTTOM
`IS SO THIN IT'S TOTAL IS
`T00 SMALL.
`
`DISTRIBUTION OF POLYOL
`SAMPLE 0N OTTAWA SAND
`PROVIDES A THIN LAYER
`AS WELL AS ADEQUATE
`SAMPLE SIZE.
`
`Fig. 4. Hygroscopicity determinations.
`
`essentially a layer of polyol only a few molecules thick, as in Figure 40. Since
`the sample would be too small to note meaningful weight changes, it appears
`most expedient to disperse a small sample on Ottawa sand and observe the rate
`of moisture change (Figure 4D).”3 Even with this method, it is necessary to
`take precautions that the samples are exposed to a uniform draft, maintained,
`of course, at a constant temperature and constant relative humidity. Following
`these techniques, valid dynamic hygroscopicity information can be obtained.
`Figure 5 shows data obtained on sorbitol and glycerine by this technique.
`Viscosity
`The viscosity of polyhydric alcohols in aqueous solution is of
`importance in food applications because of the bodying effect that is conveyed.
`Viscosity generally increases with increasing molecular weight. Viscosity is,
`of course, a function of concentration and temperature. Room-temperature
`viscosity data for a number of the major polyols are presented in Figure 6.
`Taste Although the polyhydric alcohols are a relatively homogeneous
`family of compounds, their taste characteristics can vary from the decided
`bitterness of propylene glycol to the sweetness of sugar. Isomers in any one of
`the higher classifications can show tremendous differences in sweetness,
`although their overall molecular weight and many other characteristics are
`similar. However, none of these polyhydric alcohols should be classed as syn-
`thetic sweeteners. They range in sweetness from half as sweet to essentially
`three-quarters as sweet as sugars. The results of a recent study of relative
`sweetness of polyols and sugars are presented in Table 3161 with a comparison
`of some earlier published data. This comparative property has been the subject
`ofmany studies.”*”’5"”"°’”5'15““
`
`Reasons for Using Polyhydric Alcohols in Food
`
`Polyhydric alcohols are added to manufactured foods either to promote
`the retention of the original quality of the food on aging and shipment to
`
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`

`438
`
`Hand book of Food Additives
`
`
`IIIIIIIIIII!II
`
`Illuaiisaiilll
`
`'il "III
`lllll4_‘!eeu
`
`
`Illi'illllllll
`,u‘
`
`lzilllllllllll
`EIIIIIIIIIIIII
`
`HIIIIIIIIIIIII
`s-unugzmmalll
`‘5'!!::ssa:
`
`IIIIIIii....II
`
`
`
`+25
`
`+20
`
`”+15
`
`+10
`
`+ 0|
`
`
`
`7.WeightChang
`
`—‘5
`
`\\
`
`20
`
`
`
`so
`60
`4o
`Time in Minutes
`
`
`
`100120
`
`Viscosity—Cenlipoisesat25°C
`
`
`5m=========EE
`-----------
`zm-I-I-I-I-Im
`mggggggggggg
`
`---------’--
`m-I-I-I-IF-I
`
`
`
` IIIIE‘II
`
`
`
`
`
`30
`
`4O
`
`60
`50
`% Solid:
`
`7O
`
`0
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`Fig. 5. Comparative dynamic hygroscopi-
`cities of polyols.’k
`’Source: Atlas Sorbiiol and Related Palyols, CD-SO. Copyright 1951, Atlas Chemical Industries, Inc.#now
`ICI America, Inc. Revised June 1953.
`
`Fig. 6. Comparative viscosities of poiyoi
`solutions.*
`
`TABLE 3
`
`____—_—__—.——————-—
`Relative Sweetness of Polyols and Sugars (Sucrose=1)
`
`Relative Sweetness
`____.__———-—-—————
`Polyol or Sugar
`
`.,
`
`1.4—1.7
`1.0—1.3
`l
`0.7—0.8
`
`0.7
`
`0.6—0.7
`
`0.6
`
`0.5—0.6
`05
`0.4—0.5
`
`0.4
`
`0.3
`
`0.2
`0.1—0.2
`
`l l }
`
`}
`}
`
`Fructose or Levulose
`
`Invert Sugar
`Sucrose
`
`Dextrose, anhydrous
`Xylitol
`Iditol
`Maltitol
`
`Dextrose, monohydrate
`Galactose
`
`Corn Syrup—enzyme converted
`Glucose Hydrate
`Sorbitol
`Mannitol
`Dulcitol
`Inositol
`
`Erythritol
`Lactitol
`
`}
`
`Xylose
`Corn Syrup, unmixed
`Maltose
`Rafflnose
`Lactose
`
`Erythritan
`
`MYLAN INST. EXHIBIT 1010 PAGE 10
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`

`

`the consumer, or to gain a texture or product quality that was not present
`in the original formula. These qualities are achieved through physical or chemi-
`cal effects in which the polyols function variously, as follows:
`
`Polyhyd ric Alcohols
`
`439
`
`PWSP’P‘H‘PDNE“
`
`l—‘l—‘r—lFol-‘9
`
`Viscosity or Bodying Agents
`Crystallization Modification
`Taste or Sweetness
`
`Hygroscopicity or Humectancy
`Solvency
`Rehydration Aids
`Sequestering
`Antioxidant
`
`Microbiological Preservation
`Softening
`Bulking Agents
`Dietary Foods
`
`Viscosity or Bodying Agents While the viscosity effect of a dilute polyolis
`minimal when compared with viscous liquids, it is apparently an effect that
`the tongue and other sensory receptors of the mouth are able to discern.
`Relatively small proportions of polyols added to beverages convey an improve-
`ment in mouthfeel that is described as bodying action. Similar effects are
`obtained with thickening agents, although frequently their overall flavor
`characteristics are not as desirable as those of polyols.
`Polyols may be employed in some foods to increase their viscosity and in
`others to effect a reduction. Sorbitol is effective in increasing viscosity be-
`cause of the inherent high viscosity of its aqueous solution. Propylene glycol
`represents the other end of the viscosity scale. Often the best control of vis-
`cosity can be achieved by a blend of glycerine, sorbitol, and sugars.162
`Crystallization Modification
`(related to water solubility) Many foodstuffs
`are dependent on a semi-equilibrium mixture of sugar crystals and sugar syrup
`for their texture characteristics, especially in the field of confectionery. These
`products include the typical creams, fondants, and fudge. Because the crystal-
`lization continues in storage, this type of product exhibits a limited shelf-life
`with reference to texture. It has long been standard practice to add invert
`sugar as a “doctor” to maintain the desired consistency. It has been found that
`the addition of glycerine“132 and sorbitolfi-Sfiy‘t37'47—‘9’7°""“° when properly
`employed, can increase the shelf-life by further complexing the crystalline
`nature of the confection, thus reducing its tendency to harden. DuRoss has
`studied the development of sugar crystals with and without the addition of
`sorbitol and has shown a beneficial difference.‘""9 This reduction in crystal-
`lizing tendencies is also of value in the production of marshmallow and nougat
`where the crystallization inhibitory action provides advantages in process-
`ing.“°"""1-167 Polyhydric alcohols are included in military specifications for
`shelf-life improvement.174
`Taste 0r Sweetness Taste is an unusually complex property, comprising
`flavor, texture, temperature, mouthfeel, and many other factors. The actual
`taste of polyols is generally of little consequence when they constitute a minor
`additive. When a polyol is a major component, such as in “sugar-free” candies
`
`MYLAN INST. EXHIBIT 1010 PAGE 11
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`

`

`440
`
`Handbook of Food Additives
`
`(see p. 448, Special Dietary Foods), it usually is the major source of sweetness.
`Sorbitol and mannitol are especially good in this application.
`On the other hand, even in minor amounts polyols may exert a decided
`effect on taste. Polyols have also been used to modify the sweetness of a product
`rather than to create sweetness. Sorbitol has been reported to cause a taste
`improvement when used with saccharin‘57'159 by inhibiting the strong bitter
`characteristic that is correlated with saccharinflt"157 In wine a small amount
`
`of sorbitol exhibits a distinct smoothing and bodying action, probably due to a
`combination of viscosity and sequestrant (or complexing) action.18
`Hygroscopicity or Humectancy Humectancy, hygroscopicity, or moisture-
`holding power of a polyol added to a confection has been reported to be of
`importance in maintaining freshness."7 It is believed that the effect of crystal
`modification discussed in the previous section is of far greater importance.
`This belief is based on the premise that the polyols that are employed cannot
`sufficiently influence the moisture-holding power of the confection to create
`the indicated effect. The loss of moisture has been shown not to be a primary
`factor in bread or cake staling.” Usually, polyols are added at considerably
`less than 10% of the weight of the confection; if they were twice as effective at
`holding moisture, they would tend to raise the moisture-holding power by less
`than 5%. Humectancy is important in the processing of marshmallows,“"“’167
`where the rate of moisture loss to the casting starch over a specific time interval
`is reduced.
`
`In a few instances the reverse of hygroscopicity is desired, as in the dusting
`of chewing gum. In this instance the low hygroscopicity of crystalline mannitol
`is a distinct advantage and is extensively used, blended with starch. A further
`advantage is the cool, sweet taste also exhibited by mannitol.m
`Solvency Solvent action of polyols increases rapidly with decreasing
`molecular weight; thus, propylene glycol is the most potent solvent of the
`food-grade polyols. Glycerine is the next best solvent, but it is already high
`enough in molecular weight to be used only rarely as a solvent.”'“-97-99' 10““
`Sorbitol and mannitol have been used in various ways: (1) as flavor carriers or
`flavor-encapsulating agents;“'“'”3"" (2) as flavor enhancers in a wide variety
`of products, such as coffee concentratesfm” meat-curing compositions/2'73“
`flavor additives for nuts,"'11 and pure juice concentrates;“"" and (3) in a
`number of flavor-enhancing compositions.“”‘-‘““‘9
`Rehydration Aids The dehydration of foods is of value in preservation and
`reduction in weight for shipping. Unfortunately, in many instances food
`dehydration causes difficulty in rehydration, and the reconstituted food is
`significantly different from the original foodstuff. Many years ago the use of
`a hexitol to improve the rehydration and terminal characteristics of vege-
`tables was described.“ More recently the armed-services laboratories have
`determined that the inclusion of a small amount of a polyol blend during dehy-
`dration will allow a marked improvement in quality of rehydration character-
`istics.29 It is probable that the polyol avoids the total collapse of the cellular
`structure during dehydration and keeps it in a better form for acceptance of
`water at the time of rehydration.
`Sequestering The hexitols have been shown to have a mild sequestering
`action, although it is not comparable to EDTA.* This sequestering behavior
`shows up as a reduction in wine precipitate.” Sorbitol has also been used to
`advantage in fruit beverages.5l
`
`* EDTA—Ethylene diaminetetraacetic acid.
`
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`Polyhydric Alcohols
`
`441
`
`Antioxidant The objectionable taste called rancidity may occur as a result
`of one or both of two chemical reactions. The first is oxidation of double bonds,
`
`catalyzed by heavy metals; the second is hydrolytic rancidity.
`Hexitols exert a mild sequestering action, as noted in the previous discus-
`sion of sequestering; in a few instances, particularly with natural oils present
`such as butter, a mild resistance to rancidity may be observed.
`Polyols may also aid in hydrolytic rancidity, glycerine having been re-
`ported to retard free fatty-acid formation and thus reduce the rancidity ten-
`dency.‘30
`Microbiological Preservation Polyols as well as sugars act as preservatives
`at high concentrations based generally on osmotic-pressure effects. These
`concentration levels are usually at greater than 75 weight per cent to be effec-
`tive. An exception to this is the effectiveness of propylene glycol as a preserva-
`tive. Often propylene glycol is effective at a level as low as 10 per cent. In many '
`instances combinations of propylene glycol and higher molecular weight
`polyols are employed.15
`Softening The softening effect of polyols, also referred to as plasticizing,
`is primarily related to their moisture—holding power, or humectancy. True
`softening, or plasticizing, is required to a lesser extent in foods than in other
`products. Softening is closely allied with hygroscopicity and the ability of the
`polyol to hold moisture. However, at low concentrations of polyols in aqueous
`systems, the moisture-holding power of the combination is usually less than
`the calculated combined holding power of the polyols and the substrate. This
`is probably best explained by the hypothesis that polyols satisfy some of the
`hydrogen-bonding capacity of the vehicle, just as water does at higher moisture
`levels. At low moisture content a good softener or plasticizer will still exhibit
`a softening effect. In considering a polyol for this use, a general rule to follow
`is that the lower the molecular weight, the better the polyol will plasticize or
`soften.
`
`If artificial sweeteners are used instead of sugar, one of the
`Bulking Agents
`immediate problems that is encountered is the reduction in solids content, or
`the change in ratio of solids of sweetener to other ingredients. For example,
`only a few milligrams of artificial sweetener are equivalent to one ounce of
`sugar. It is frequently possible to formulate powdered beverage concentrates
`without a bulking agent, because the beverage concentrates contain acidu-
`lants that can act as carriers for the flavor and artificial sweetener. In foods
`
`such as ice cream, cakes, cookies, and confections, the problem is pronounced.
`Elimination of the sugar gives a totally unbalanced formula that does not
`behave properly and results in an unpalatable end product. Polyols such as
`sorbitol and mannitol are the most commonly used bulking agents.
`Dietary Foods Polyols are used in dietary foods as replacements for sugars.
`The metabolism of hexitols in comparison with sugars has been studied,
`although not extensively.“"“-1“5 Studies have shown that sorbitol is less
`readily attacked by Lactobacillus than sucrose—thus, possibly reducing
`potential tooth decay.“'59"° At times processors have labeled their products
`“sugar-free” when using the hexitols in place of sugar. This may have some
`valid basis on the above, but often the inference leads the consumer to believe
`the product contains fewer or no calories. This is not true, since basically the
`hexitols have the same caloric value as sugar—and this is true of the polyols
`in general. Certain polyols (mannitol and dulcitol) actually afford fewer
`
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`442
`
`Handbook of Food Additives
`
`absorbed calories because of the lack of solubility. The major uses in dietetic
`foods have been in confectionery products."’93!9‘-93I“5'125
`
`Selection Methods
`
`There is no easily followed set of instructions or method in the selection of
`polyols for food applications. Property improvements that are desired should
`be considered and compared with the reasons for use presented above. Based
`on the desired functionality indicated, polyols should be evaluated at prob-
`ably what initially would appear to be higher than desirable levels. This type
`of evaluation will give an indication as to whether or not the inclusion of a
`polyol will have any effect on the formula. Should a desired effect be observed,
`retrial at lower levels will allow a choice of concentration that should be
`suitable.
`
`A brief summarization of behavior characteristics and application data
`has been assembled in Table 4 for use as a starting reference to simplify the
`selection of a polyol to perform a specific task. The formulas presented on
`pages 443—451 will serve as examples to illustrate these points.
`
`TABLE 4
`
`Guide for Choosing Polyhydric Alcoho|5<
`
`Propylene Glycerine
`Glycol
`
`Sorbz'tol Mammal
`
`Crystallization Modifier
`Humectant
`(Moisture Resistant Dust)
`Plasticizer
`Bodying Agent
`Solvent
`
`x
`
`x
`
`x
`x
`
`x
`
`x
`x
`
`x
`
`x
`
`x
`x
`Bulking Agent
`
`xRehydmtion x
`
`
`
`Equipment
`
`Most of the polyols above the three carbon-chain length are available in
`either crystalline form or a solution or syrup. The choice of liquid or solid will
`depend on the economics of handling and the desired moisture content of the
`final products. Where a low final moisture content is desired, for example, as
`in some forms of tableted mints, it may be desirable or even necessary to main-
`tain a relatively uniform low humidity in the manufacturing area throughout
`the year. Seldom is it necessary to go below approximately 40 per cent relative
`humidity to gain excellent processing characteristics.
`
`Food Uses of Polyhydric Alcohols
`
`Polyols are used in conventional foods for varied reasons, based on the
`many functionally different effects they exhibit. Applications in conventional
`foods will be presented according to the type of food or food ingredient in which
`they are used. Polyols employed in dietary foods are sufficiently different to
`warrant separate discussion.
`
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`Polyhydric Alcohols
`
`443
`
`Flavor Concentrate
`
`Propylene glycol is the edible polyol of choice to use as a solvent for flavor
`compounds.“97-102.M3 A typical formula follows:
`
`SINGLE FOLD VANILLA FLAVOR CONCENTRATE
`
`Ingredients.
`Vanillin
`Propylene Glycol
`
`13.5 mg
`q.s. to one gallon
`
`Glycerine is employed to some extent as a flavor vehicle, although it
`exhibits less solvency than propylene glycol. The polyols replace the formerly
`used alcohol and provide a more uniform flavor level because of lack of vola-
`tility of the carrier. Propylene glycol is also used as a carrier for emulsifiers."
`
`Confections
`
`As mentioned previously, polyols contribute significantly to improving both
`“as made” quality and shelf life of confections based on sugar."”"” When
`properly blended with sugar, polyols act as “doctors,” or crystallization modi-
`fiers, and exert beneficial texturizing and stabilizing i