The Art Of Electronics - 2nd Edition
`
`Paul Horowitz Hmmmmm
`
`Winfield Hill HOWLANDINSTITUTE FOR SCIENCE. CAMBRIDGE, MASSACHUSETTS
`
`
`
`,
`
`CAMBRIDGE
`.. UNIVERSITY PRESS
`
`0001
`
`AMD EX1019
`
`US. Patent No. 6,239,614
`
`

`

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`

`

`Contents
`
`List of tables
`
`xvi
`
`Preface xix
`
`Preface to first edition xxi
`
`CHAPTER 1
`FOUNDATIONS 1
`
`Introduction 1
`
`Voltage, current, and resistance 2
`
`2
`1.01 Voltage and current
`1.02 Relationship between voltage and
`current: resistors
`4
`
`8
`1.03 Voltage dividers
`1.04 Voltage and current sources
`1.05 Thevenin‘s equivalent circuit
`1.06 Small—signal resistance
`13
`
`9
`11
`
`Signals 15
`
`15
`1.07 Sinusoidal signals
`1.08 Signal amplitudcs and
`dccibcls
`16
`
`1.09 Other signals
`1.10 Logic levels
`1.1 1 Signal sourccs
`
`17
`19
`
`19
`
`Capacitors and ac circuits 20
`
`20
`1.12 Capacitors
`1.13 RC circuits: Vand [versus
`time 23
`1.14 Diffcrcntiators
`
`25
`
`1.15 Integrators
`
`26
`
`Inductors and transformers 28
`
`28
`1.16 Inductors
`1.17 Transformers
`
`28
`
`Impedance and reactance 29
`
`1.18 Frequency analysis of reactive
`circuits
`30
`1.19 RC filters
`35
`
`39
`1.20 Phasor diagrams
`1.21 "Poles" and decibels per
`octave
`40
`1.22 Resonant circuits and active
`filters
`41
`
`1.23 Other capacitor applications
`1.24 Thévenin’s theorem
`
`42
`
`generalized
`
`44
`
`Diodes and diode circuits 44
`
`44
`1.25 Diodes
`1.26 Rectification
`
`44
`
`45
`1.27 Power—supply filtering
`1.28 Rectifier configurations for power
`supplies
`46
`48
`1.29 Regulators
`1.30 Circuit applications of diodcs
`1.31 Inductive loads and diode
`
`48
`
`protcction
`
`52
`
`Other passive components 53
`1.32 Electromechanical devices
`1.33 Indicators
`57
`
`53
`
`1.34 Variable components
`Additional exercises
`58
`
`57
`
`CHAPTER 2
`TRANSISTORS 61
`
`Introduction
`
`61
`
`2.01 First transistor model: current
`
`amplifier
`
`62
`
`Some basic transistor circuits 63
`
`2.02 Transistor switch
`2.03 Emitter follower
`
`63
`65
`
`0003
`
`vii
`
`

`

`Viii
`CONTENTS
`
`
`Basic FET circuits
`
`124
`
`3.06 JFET current sources
`
`125
`
`3.07 FET amplifiers
`3.08 Source followers
`
`129
`133
`
`135
`3.09 FET gate current
`3.10 FETs as variable resistors
`
`138
`
`FET switches
`
`140
`
`141
`3.11 FET analog switches
`3.12 Limitations of FET switches
`
`144
`
`3.1 3 Some FET analog switch
`examples
`151
`3.14 MOSFET logic and power
`switches
`153
`
`3.15 MOSFET handling
`precautions
`169
`
`Self—explanatory circuits
`3.16 Circuit ideas
`171
`
`171
`
`3.17 Bad circuits
`
`171 vskip6pt
`
`CHAPTER 4
`FEEDBACK AND OPERATIONAL
`AMPLIFIERS 175
`
`4.01 Introduction to feedback
`
`175
`
`4.02 Operational amplifiers
`4.03 The golden rules
`177
`
`176
`
`Basic op-amp circuits
`
`177
`
`177
`4.04 Inverting amplifier
`4.05 Noninverting amplifier
`4.06 Follower
`179
`4.07 Current sources
`
`180
`
`178
`
`4.08 Basic cautions for op-amp
`circuits
`182
`
`An op—amp smorgasbord
`4.09 Linear circuits
`183
`4.10 Nonlinear circuits
`
`183
`
`187
`
`A detailed look at op—amp behavior
`
`188
`
`4.1 1 Departure from ideal op—amp
`performance
`189
`4.12 Effects of 0p-amp limitations on
`circuit behavior
`193
`
`4.13 Low—power and programmable
`op—amps
`210
`
`102
`
`lntroduction 175
`
`2.04 Emitter followers as voltage
`regulators
`68
`2.05 Emitter follower biasing
`2.06 Transistor current source
`
`69
`72
`
`2.07 Common-emitter amplifier
`2.08 Unity—gain phase splitter
`2.09 Transconductance
`78
`
`76
`77
`
`Ebers-Moll model applied to basic
`transistor circuits 79
`
`2.10 Improved transistor model:
`transconductance amplifier
`2.11 The emitter follower revisited
`
`79
`
`81
`
`2.12 The common—emitter amplifier
`revisited
`82
`
`2.13 Biasing the common-emitter
`amplifier 84
`2.14 Current mirrors
`
`88
`
`Some amplifier building blocks
`
`91
`
`2.15 Push—pull output stages
`2.16 Darlington connection
`2.17 Bootstrapping
`96
`98
`2.18 Differential amplifiers
`2.19 Capacitance and Miller effect
`2.20 Field—effect transistors
`104
`
`91
`94
`
`Some typical transistor circuits
`
`104
`
`104
`2.21 Regulated power supply
`105
`2.22 Temperature controller
`2.23 Simple logic with transistors and
`diodes
`107
`
`Self—explanatory circuits
`2.24 Good circuits
`107
`2.25 Bad circuits
`107
`Additional exercises
`107
`
`107
`
`CHAPTER 3
`FIELD—EFFECT TRANSISTORS 113
`
`lntroduction
`
`1 13
`
`3.01 FET characteristics
`
`114
`
`117
`3.02 FET types
`3.03 Universal FET characteristics
`3.04 FET drain characteristics
`121
`
`119
`
`3.05 Manufacturing spread of FET
`characteristics
`122
`
`0004
`
`

`

`ix
`CONTENTS
`
`
`A detailed look at selected op—amp
`circuits 213
`
`4.37 Bad circuits
`Additional exercises
`
`250
`251
`
`4.14 Logarithmic amplifier
`4.15 Active peak detector
`4.16 Sample-and-hold
`220
`4.17 Active clamp
`221
`4.18 Absolute-value circuit
`
`213
`217
`
`221
`
`222
`4.19 Integrators
`4.20 Differentiators
`
`224
`
`Op-amp operation with a single power
`supply
`224
`
`4.21 Biasing single-supply ac
`amplifiers
`225
`4.22 Single-supply op-amps
`
`225
`
`Comparators and Schmitt trigger
`
`229
`
`4.23 Comparators
`4.24 Schmitt trigger
`
`229
`231
`
`Feedback with finite—gain amplifiers
`232
`
`232
`4.25 Gain equation
`4.26 Effects of feedback on amplifier
`circuits
`233
`
`4.27 Two examples of transistor
`amplifiers with feedback
`
`236
`
`Some typical op—amp circuits
`
`238
`
`4.28 General-purpose lab amplifier
`4.29 Voltage-controlled oscillator
`4.30 JFET linear switch with RON
`compensation
`241
`4.31 TTL zero—crossing detector
`4.32 Load-current—sensing circuit
`
`238
`240
`
`242
`242
`
`Feedback amplifier frequency
`compensation
`242
`
`4.33 Gain and phase shift versus
`frequency
`243
`4.34 Amplifier compensation
`methods
`245
`
`4.35 Frequency response of the feedback
`network
`247
`
`CHAPIER 5
`ACTIVE FILTERS AND
`OSCILLATORS 263
`
`Active filters 263
`
`5.01 Frequency response with RC
`filters
`263
`
`5.02 Ideal performance with LC
`filters
`265
`5.03 Enter active filters: an
`overview 266
`
`5.04 Key filter performance
`criteria
`267
`
`5.05 Filter types
`Active filter circuits
`
`268
`272
`
`5.06 VCVS circuits
`
`273
`
`5.07 VCVS filter design using our
`simplified table
`274
`5.08 State-variable filters
`5.09 Twin-T notch filters
`
`276
`279
`
`5.10 Gyrator filter realizations
`5.1 1 Switched-capacitor filters
`
`281
`281
`
`284
`Oscillators
`5.12 Introduction to oscillators
`5.13 Relaxation oscillators
`284
`
`284
`
`5.14 The classic timer chip:
`the 555
`286
`
`5.15 Voltage-controlled oscillators
`5.16 Quadrature oscillators
`291
`5.17 Wien bridge and LC
`oscillators
`296
`5.18 LC oscillators
`
`297
`
`291
`
`5.19 Quartz-crystal oscillators
`
`300
`
`Self—explanatory circuits
`5.20 Circuit ideas
`303
`Additional exercises
`303
`
`303
`
`CHAPTER 6
`VOLTAGE REGULATORS AND POWER
`CIRCUITS
`307
`
`Self-explanatory circuits
`4.36 Circuit ideas
`250
`
`250
`
`Basic regulator circuits with the
`classic 723
`307
`
`0005
`
`

`

`X
`CONTENTS
`
`
`CHAPTER 7
`PRECISION CIRCUITS AND LOW-NOISE
`
`3 1 1
`
`TECHNIQUES
`
`391
`
`307
`6.01 The 723 regulator
`309
`6.02 Positive regulator
`6.03 High—current regulator
`312
`
`Heat and power design
`Power transistors and heat
`6.04
`
`6.05
`6.06
`6.07
`
`6.08
`6.09
`6.10
`
`316
`
`312
`sinking
`Foldback current limiting
`Overvoltage crowbars
`317
`Further considerations in high—
`current power—supply design
`Programmable supplies
`321
`Power-supply circuit example
`Other regulator ICs
`325
`
`320
`
`323
`
`The unregulated supply
`
`325
`
`6.11 ac line components
`6.12 Transformer
`328
`
`326
`
`6.13 dc components
`
`329
`
`Voltage references
`6.14 Zener diodes
`
`331
`332
`
`6.15 Bandgap (VBE) reference
`Three-terminal and four-terminal
`
`335
`
`regulators
`
`341
`
`6.16 Three—terminal regulators
`6.17 Three—terminal adjustable
`regulators
`344
`6.18 Additional comments about
`
`341
`
`345
`3—terminal regulators
`6.19 Switching regulators and dc—dc
`converters
`355
`
`Special-purpose power-supply
`circuits 368
`
`374
`
`368
`6.20 High-voltageregulators
`6.21 Low—noise, low-drift supplies
`6.22 Micropower regulators
`376
`6.23 Flying-capacitor (Charge pump)
`voltage converters
`377
`6.24 Constant-current supplies
`6.25 Commercial power—supply
`modules
`382
`
`379
`
`Self-explanatory circuits 384
`6.26 Circuit ideas
`384
`6.27 Bad circuits
`384
`Additional exercises 384
`
`0006
`
`Precision op—amp design techniques
`391
`
`7.01 Precision versus dynamic
`range
`391
`392
`7.02 Error budget
`7.03 Example circuit: precision amplifier
`with automatic null offset
`392
`
`7.04 A precision—design error
`budget
`394
`395
`7.05 Component errors
`7.06 Amplifier input errors
`5 396
`7.07 Amplifieroutput errors
`403
`7.08 Auto-zeroing (chopper-stabilized)
`amplifiers
`415
`Differential and instrumentation
`
`amplifiers 421
`
`7.09 Differencing amplifier
`7.10 Standard three-op-amp
`instrumentation amplifier
`
`421
`
`425
`
`Amplifier noise
`7.11
`7.12
`
`428
`
`430
`Origins and kinds of noise
`Signal—to—noise ratio and noise
`figure
`433
`7.13 Transistor amplifier voltage and
`current noise
`436
`
`7.14 Low—noise design with
`transistors
`438
`FET noise
`443
`
`7.15
`7.16
`7.17
`
`445
`Selecting low-noise transistors
`Noise in differential and feedback
`
`445
`amplifiers
`Noise measurements and noise
`sources
`449
`
`7.18 Measurement without a noise
`source
`449
`7.19 Measurement with noise
`source
`450
`
`7.20
`7.21
`
`7.22
`
`452
`Noise and signal sources
`Bandwidth limiting and rms voltage
`measurement
`453
`
`Noise potpoun‘i
`
`454
`
`

`

`CONTENTS
`
`xi
`
`Interference: shielding and
`grounding
`455
`7.23 Interference
`
`455
`
`457
`7.24 Signal grounds
`7.25 Grounding between
`instruments
`457
`
`Self-explanatory circuits
`7.26 Circuit ideas
`466
`Additional exercises 466
`
`466
`
`CHAPTER 8
`DIGITAL ELECTRONICS
`
`471
`
`Basic logic concepts
`
`47]
`
`8.01 Digital versus analog
`8.02 Logic states
`472
`8.03 Number codes
`473
`8.04 Gates and truth tables
`
`471
`
`478
`
`8.05 Discrete circuits for gates
`8.06 Gate circuit example
`481
`8.07 Assertion-levellogic notation
`
`480
`
`482
`
`TTL and CMOS
`
`484
`
`8.08 Catalog of common gates
`8.09 IC gate circuits
`485
`8.10 TTL and CMOS
`characteristics
`
`486
`
`484
`
`8.11 Three-state and open-collector
`devices
`487
`
`Combinational logic
`
`490
`
`491
`8.12 Logic identities
`8.13 Minimization and Karnaugh
`maps
`492
`8.14 Combinational functions available
`as ICS
`493
`
`8.15 Implementing arbitrary truth
`tables
`500
`
`Sequential logic
`
`504
`
`8.16 Devices with memory: flip—
`flops
`504
`507
`8.17 Clocked flip-flops
`8.18 Combining memory and gates:
`sequential logic
`512
`8.19 Synchronizer
`515
`
`Monostable multivibrators
`
`517
`
`8.20 One—shot characteristics
`
`517
`
`8.21 Monostable circuit example
`8.22 Cautionary notes about
`monostables
`519
`
`519
`
`8.23 Timing With counters
`
`522
`
`Sequential functions available as
`ICs
`523
`
`8.24 Latches and registers
`8.25 Counters
`524
`
`523
`
`525
`8.26 Shift registers
`527
`8.27 Sequential PALS
`8.28 Miscellaneous sequential
`functions
`541
`
`Some typical digital circuits
`
`544
`
`8.29 Modulo—n counter: a timing
`example
`544
`8.30 Multiplexed LED digital
`display
`546
`8.31 Sidereal telescope drive
`8.32 An n-pulse generator
`
`548
`548
`
`Logic pathology 551
`
`551
`8.33 deroblems
`552
`8.34 Switching problems
`8.35 Congenital weaknesses of TTL and
`CMOS
`554
`
`Self-explanatorycircuits
`8.36 Circuit ideas
`556
`8.37 Bad circuits
`556
`Additional exercises 556
`
`556
`
`CHAPTER 9
`DIGITAL MEETS ANALOG 565
`
`CMOS and TTL logic interlacing
`
`565
`
`9.01 Logic family chronology
`9.02 Input and output
`characteristics
`
`570
`
`565
`
`9.03 Interfacing between logic
`families
`572
`
`9.04 Driving CMOS amd TTL
`inputs
`575
`9.05 Driving digital logic from
`comparators and op-amps
`
`577
`
`0007
`
`

`

`xii
`CONTENTS
`
`
`9.06 Some comments about logic
`inputs
`579
`580
`9.07 Comparators
`9.08 Driving external digital loads from
`CMOS and TTL 582
`
`9.09 NMOS LSI interfacing
`9.10 Opto-electronics
`590
`
`588
`
`Digital signals and long wires
`
`599
`
`9.11 On—board interconnections
`9.12 Intercard connections
`601
`9.13 Data buses
`602
`
`599
`
`9.14 Driving cables
`
`603
`
`Analogldigital conversion
`
`612
`
`9.15 Introduction to A/D
`conversion
`612
`
`9. 16 Digital—to—analog converters
`(DACs)
`614
`9.17 Time—domain (averaging)
`DACs
`618
`
`619
`9.18 Multiplying DACs
`619
`9.19 Choosing a DAC
`9.20 Analog-to-digital converters
`9.21 Charge-balancing techniques
`9.22 Some unusual A/D and D/A
`converters
`630
`
`9.23 Choosing an ADC 631
`
`621
`626
`
`9.33 Feedback shift register
`sequences
`655
`9.34 Analog noise generation from
`maximal-length sequences
`658
`9.35 Power spectrum of shift register
`sequences
`658
`9.36 Low—pass filtering
`9.37 Wrap-up
`661
`9.38 Digital filters
`
`660
`
`664
`
`Seli—explanatorycircuits
`
`667
`
`667
`9.39 Circuit ideas
`668
`9.40 Bad circuits
`Additional exercises 668
`
`CHAPTER 10
`MICROCOMPUTERS
`
`673
`
`Minicomputers, microcomputers, and
`microprocessors
`673
`
`10.01 Computer architecture
`
`A computer instruction set
`
`674
`
`678
`
`10.02 Assembly language and machine
`language
`678
`10.03 Simplified 808618 instruction
`set
`679
`
`10.04 A programming example
`
`683
`
`Some A/D conversion examples
`
`636
`
`Bus signals and interlacing
`
`684
`
`9.24 16-Channel A/D data—acquisition
`system 636
`638
`9.25 3%-Digit voltmeter
`9.26 Coulomb meter
`640
`
`Phase-locked loops
`
`641
`
`9.27 Introduction to phase—locked
`loops
`641
`646
`9.28 PLL design
`9.29 Design example: frequency
`multiplier
`647
`9.30 PLL capture and lock
`9.31 Some PLL applications
`
`651
`652
`
`Pseudo-random bit sequences and noise
`generation
`655
`
`9.32 Digital noise generation
`
`655
`
`685
`689
`
`10.05 Fundamental bus signals: data,
`address, strobe
`684
`10.06 Programmed I/O: data out
`10.07 Programmed I/O: data in
`10.08 Programmed I/O: status
`registers
`690
`10.09 Interrupts
`693
`695
`10.10 Interrupt handling
`697
`10.1 1 Interrupts in general
`701
`10.12 Direct memory access
`10.13 Summary of the IBM PC's bus
`signals
`704
`10.14 Synchronous versus asynchronous
`bus communication
`707
`
`10.15 Other microcomputer buses
`10.16 Connecting peripherals to the
`computer
`711
`
`708
`
`0008
`
`

`

`xiii
`CONTENTS
`
`
`Software system concepts
`
`714
`
`714
`10.17 Programming
`10.18 Operating systems, files, and use of
`memory
`716
`
`Data communications concepts
`
`719
`
`10.19 Serial communication and
`ASCII
`720
`10.20 Parallel communication:
`Centronics, SCSI, IPI,
`GPIB (488)
`730
`10.21 Local area networks
`
`734
`
`10.22 Interface example: hardware data
`packing
`736
`10.23 Number formats
`
`738
`
`CHAPTER 11
`MICROPROCESSORS
`
`743
`
`A detailed look at the 68008
`
`744
`
`11.01 Registers. memory, and I/O 744
`11.02 instruction set and
`
`745
`addressing
`1 1.03 Machine-language
`representation
`750
`11.04 Bus signals
`753
`
`A complete design example: analog
`signal averager
`760
`
`760
`11.05 Circuit design
`11.06 Programming: defining the
`task
`774
`
`11.07 Programming: details
`11.08 Performance
`796
`
`777
`
`11.09 Some afterthoughts
`
`797
`
`Microprocessor support chips 799
`
`800
`
`11.10 Medium-scale integration
`11.1 1 Peripheral LSI chips
`802
`11.12 Memory
`812
`820
`11.13 Other microprocessors
`11.14 Emulators. development systems,
`logic analyzers, and evaluation
`boards
`821
`
`CHAPTER 12
`ELECTRONIC CONSTRUCTION
`TECHNIQUES
`827
`
`Prototyping methods
`12.01 Breadboards
`
`827
`827
`
`12.02 PC prototyping boards
`12.03 Wire-Wrap panels
`828
`
`828
`
`Printed circuits
`
`830
`
`12.04 PC board fabrication
`
`830
`
`835
`12.05 PC board design
`838
`12.06 StuffingPC boards
`12.07 Some further thoughts on PC
`boards
`840
`
`12.08 Advanced techniques
`
`841
`
`Instrument construction
`
`852
`
`12.09 Housing circuit boards in an
`instrument
`852
`12.10 Cabinets
`854
`12.11 Construction hints
`
`855
`
`855
`12.12 Cooling
`12.13 Some electrical hints
`
`858
`
`12.14 Where to get components
`
`860
`
`CHAPTER 13
`HIGH-FREQUENCY AND HIGH-SPEED
`TECHNIQUES
`863
`
`High-frequency amplifiers
`
`863
`
`13.01 Transistor amplifiers at high
`frequencies: first look
`863
`13.02 High-frequency amplifiers: the ac
`model
`864
`
`13.03 A high-frequency calculation
`example
`866
`13.04 High-frequency amplifier
`configurations
`868
`13.05 A wideband design example
`13.06 Some refinements to the ac
`model
`872
`
`13.07 The shunt—series pair
`13.08 Modular amplifiers
`
`872
`873
`
`869
`
`Radiofrequency circuit elements 879
`
`13.09 Transmission lines
`
`879
`
`0009
`
`

`

`CONTENTS
`xiv
`
`
`Power sources
`
`920
`
`920
`14.02 Battery types
`14.03 Wall-plug—in units
`14.04 Solar cells
`932
`
`931
`
`14.05 Signal currents
`
`933
`
`Power switching and micropower
`regulators
`938
`
`938
`14.06 Power switching
`14.07 Micropower regulators
`14.08 Ground reference
`944
`
`941
`
`14.09 Micropower voltage references and
`temperature sensors
`948
`
`Linear micropower design
`techniques
`948
`
`14.10 Problems of micropower linear
`design
`950
`14.1 1 Discrete linear design
`example
`950
`14.12 Micropower operational
`amplifiers
`951
`14.13 Micropower comparators
`14.14 Micropower timers and
`oscillators
`965
`
`965
`
`Micropower digital design
`
`969
`
`14.15 CMOS families
`
`969
`
`970
`14.16 Keeping CMOS low power
`14.17 Micropower microprocessors and
`peripherals
`974
`14.18 Microprocessor design example:
`degree—day logger
`978
`
`910
`
`Self-explanatorycircuits
`
`985
`
`14.19 Circuit ideas
`
`985
`
`CHAPTER 15
`MEASUREMENTS AND SIGNAL
`PROCESSING 987
`
`Overview 987
`
`Measurement transducers 988
`
`988
`15.01 Temperature
`996
`15.02 Light level
`15.03 Strain and displacement
`
`1001
`
`13.10 Stubs, baluns. and
`transformers
`881
`
`882
`13.11 Tuned amplifiers
`13.12 Radiofrequency circuit
`elements
`884
`
`13.13 Measuring amplitude or
`power
`888
`
`Radiofrequency communications:
`AM 892
`
`13.14 Some communications
`
`892
`concepts
`13.15 Amplitude modulation
`13.16 Superheterodyne receiver
`
`894
`895
`
`Advanced modulation methods
`
`897
`
`897
`13.17 Single sideband
`898
`13.18 Frequency modulation
`900
`13.19 Frequency—shift keying
`13.20 Pulse—modulation schemes
`
`900
`
`Radiofrequency circuit tricks
`
`902
`
`13.21 Special construction
`techniques
`902
`13.22 Exotic RF amplifiers and
`devices 903
`
`High-speed switching
`
`904
`
`13.23 Transistor model and
`
`905
`equations
`13.24 Analog modeling tools
`
`908
`
`Some switching-speed examples
`
`909
`
`909
`13.25 High-voltage driver
`13.26 Open-collector bus driver
`13.27 Example: photomultiplier
`preamp
`911
`
`Self-explanatory circuits
`
`913
`
`913
`13.28 Circuit ideas
`Additional exercises 913
`
`CHAPTER 14
`LOW-POWER DESIGN 917
`
`Introduction 917
`
`14.01 Low-power applications
`
`918
`
`0010
`
`

`

`1 5. O4 Acceleration, pressure, force,
`velocity
`1004
`15 (5 Magnetic field
`15. (B Vacuum gauges
`15 07 Particle detectors
`
`1007
`1007
`1008
`
`15 (B Biological and chemical voltage
`probes
`1012
`
`Precision standards and precision
`measurements
`1016
`
`1016
`15. 09 Frequency standards
`15. 10 Frequency, period, and time-
`interval measurements
`1019
`
`15. 1
`
`1 Voltage and resistance standards
`and measurements
`1025
`
`Bandwidth-narrowing techniques
`
`1026
`
`15 12 The problem of signal-to-noise
`ratio
`1026
`
`15. 13 Signal averaging and multichannel
`averaging
`1026
`1 5. 14 Making a signal periodic
`15.15 Lock-in detection
`1031
`
`1030
`
`1CB4
`15. 16 Pulse-height analysis
`15. 17 Time-to-amplitude converters
`1035
`
`Spectrum analysis and Fourier
`transforms
`1035
`
`1CB5
`15. 18 Spectrum analyzers
`15. 19 Off-line spectrum analysis
`
`1038
`
`Self-explanatory circuits
`
`1038
`
`15. 20 Circuit ideas
`
`1038
`
`CONTENTS
`
`APPENDIXES
`
`1043
`
`Appendix A
`The oscilloscope
`
`1045
`
`Appendix B
`Math review 1050
`
`Appendix C
`The 5% resistor color code
`
`1053
`
`Appendix D
`1% Precision resistors
`
`1054
`
`Appendix E
`How to draw schematic diagrams
`
`1056
`
`Appendix F
`Load lines
`
`1059
`
`Appendix G
`Transistor saturation
`
`1062
`
`Appendix H
`LC Butterworth filters
`
`1064
`
`Appendix 1
`Electronics magazines and journals
`1068
`
`Appendix J
`IC prefixes
`
`Appendix K
`Data sheets
`
`1069
`
`1072
`
`2N4400—1 NPN transistor
`
`1073
`
`LF41 1-12 JFET operational
`amplifier
`1078
`L M317 3—terminal adjustable
`regulator
`1086
`
`Bibliography 1095
`Index
`1101
`
`001 1
`
`

`

`Tables
`
`Diodes
`
`43
`
`PW?"HIE-H
`
`3.3
`'3.4
`3.5
`3.6
`3.7
`4-1
`4.2
`4.3
`4.4
`5.1
`
`5-2
`5.3
`5.4
`6.]
`6.2
`6.3
`
`6.5
`6.6
`6.7
`6.8
`6.9
`
`6.10
`7.1
`7.2
`I713
`
`7.4
`7.5
`8.1
`8.2
`8.3
`8.4
`
`XVi
`
`109
`
`129
`166
`
`Small—signal transistors
`JFETs
`125
`126
`MOSFETS
`128
`Dual matched JFETs
`Current regulator diodes
`Power MOSFETs
`164
`BJT-MOSFET comparison
`Electrostatic voltages
`170
`Operational amplifiers
`196
`Recommended op-amps
`208
`High-voltage op-amps
`213
`Power op-amps
`214
`Time—domain filter comparison
`273
`VCVS low-pass filters
`555-type oscillators
`Selected VCOS
`293
`Power transistors
`314
`Transient su
`ressors
`PP
`Power-line filters
`327
`Rectifiers
`331
`Zener and reference diodes
`SOOmW zeners
`334
`
`274
`289
`
`326
`
`334
`
`352
`401
`
`336
`IC voltage references
`342
`Fixed voltage regulators
`Adjustable voltage regulators
`346
`Dual—tracking regulators
`Seven precision op-amps
`Precision op-amps
`404
`High-speed precision op-amps
`412
`418
`Fast buffers
`Instrumentation amplifiers
`4—bit integers
`477
`TTL and CMOS gates
`Logic identities
`491
`Buffers
`560
`
`429
`
`484
`
`0012
`
`8.5
`
`8.6
`3.7
`3.3
`8.9
`3 10
`'
`1
`. 8‘1
`9'1
`9-2
`
`9.3
`9.4
`9_5
`9.6
`10‘]
`102
`10 3
`'
`10'4
`10.5
`10-6
`1 1-1
`1 1-2
`
`l 1.3
`1 1.4
`l 1.5
`11.6
`1 1.7
`
`1
`
`l 3
`'
`12.1
`12-2
`13-1
`13-2
`NJ
`14.2
`14.3
`
`560
`Transceivers
`Decoders
`561
`
`Magnitude comparators
`Monostable multiVibrators
`
`561
`562
`
`D-registers and latches
`Counters
`563
`
`562
`
`564
`Shift registers
`570
`Logic family characteristics
`Allowed connections between logic
`families
`574
`
`Comparators
`DIA converters
`AID converters
`
`584
`620
`632
`
`Integrating A/D converters
`IBM PC bus
`704
`
`634
`
`Computer buses
`ASCII codes
`721
`
`709
`
`724
`RS-232 signals
`Serial data standards
`
`727
`
`Centronics (printer) signals
`6800018 instruction set
`746
`
`730
`
`Allowable addressing modes
`6800018 addressing modes
`68008 bus signals
`753
`6800018 vectors
`788
`
`748
`749
`
`804
`Zilog 8530 registers
`Zilog 8530 serial port initialization
`806
`
`822
`Microprocessors
`PC graphic patterns
`Venturi fans
`858
`RF transistors
`877
`
`839
`
`878
`Wideband op-amps
`922
`Primary batteries
`923
`Battery characteristics
`Primary-battery attributes
`
`930
`
`

`

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`

`

`Ch2: Transistors
`
`INTRODUCTION
`
`The transistor is our most important ex-
`ample of an "active" component, a device
`that can amplify, producing an output sig-
`nal with more power in it than the input
`signal. The additional power comes from
`an external source of power (the power
`supply, to be exact). Note that voltage am-
`plification isn't what matters, since, for ex—
`ample, a step-up transformer, a "passive"
`component just like a resistor or capaci-
`tor, has voltage gain but no power gain.
`Devices with power gain are distinguish-
`able by their ability to make oscillators, by
`feeding some output signal back into the
`input.
`It is interesting to note that the prop—
`erty of power amplification seemed very
`important to the inventors of the transis-
`tor. Almost
`the 'first
`thing they did to
`convince themselves that they had really
`invented something was to power a loud—
`speaker from a transistor, observing that
`the output signal sounded louder than the
`input signal.
`The transistor is the essential ingredi-
`ent of every electronic circuit, from the
`
`simplest amplifier or oscillator to the most
`elaborate digital computer. Integrated cir-
`cuits (ICs), which have largely replaced cir-
`cuits constructed from discrete transistors,
`are themselves merely arrays of transistors
`and other components built from a single
`chip of semiconductor material.
`A good understanding of transistors is
`very important, even if most of your
`circuits are made from ICs, because you
`need to understand the input and output
`properties of the IC in order to connect
`it
`to the rest of your circuit and to the
`outside world.
`ln addition, the transistor
`is the single most powerful resource for
`interfacing, whether between ICs and other
`circuitry or between one subcircuit and
`another. Finally, there are frequent (some
`might say too frequent) situations where
`the right IC just doesn't exist, and you
`have to rely on discrete transistor circuitry
`to do the job. As you will see, transistors
`have an excitement all their own. Learning
`how they work can be great fun.
`Our treatment of transistors is going
`to be quite different from that of many
`other books.
`It
`is common practice to
`use the h—parameter model and equivalent
`
`0014
`
`

`

`TRANSISTORS
`i2
`Chapter 2
`
`circuit. In our opinion that is unnecessar—
`ily complicated and unintuitive. Not only
`does circuit behavior tend to be revealed to
`
`1. The collector must be more positive
`than the emitter.
`2
`The base-emitter and base-collector
`
`you as something that drops out of elabo-
`rate equations, rather than deriving from a
`clear understanding in your own mind as
`to how the circuit functions; you also have
`the tendency to lose sight of which param-
`eters of transistor behavior you can count
`on and, more important, which ones can
`vary over large ranges.
`In this chapter we will build up instead a
`very simple introductory transistor model
`and immediately work out some circuits
`with it. Soon its limitations will become
`
`apparent; then we will expand the model
`to include the respected Ebers-Moll c011-
`ventions. With the Ebers-Moll equations
`and a simple 3-terminal model, you will
`have a good understanding of transistors;
`you won't need to do a lot of calculations,
`and your designs will be first-rate. In par-
`ticular, they will be largely independent of
`the poorly controlled transistor parameters
`such as current gain.
`Some important engineering notation
`should be mentioned. Voltage at a tran—
`sistor terminal (relative to ground) is in—
`dicated by a single subscript (C, B, or
`E): V0 is the collector voltage, for in—
`stance. Voltage between two terminals is
`indicated by a double subscript: VBE is
`the base-to-emitter voltage drop, for in-
`stance. If the same letter is rcpcatcd, that
`means a power—supply voltage: VCC is the
`(positive) power—supply voltage associated
`with the collector, and VEE is the (neg-
`ative) supply voltage associated with the
`emitter.
`
`2.01 First transistor model: current
`
`amplifier
`
`(Fig. 2.2).
`circuits behave like diodes
`Normally the base—emitter diode is con—
`ducting and the base-collector diode is re—
`verse-biased,
`i.e.,
`the applied voltage is
`in the opposite direction to easy current
`flow.
`
`col lect Dr
`
`C
`
`bass
`
`3
`
`mm
`
`.
`mm
`
`‘Qfi
`
`E
`
`as.
`
`EQ
`
`3 t'.‘
`
`T09?
`
`Transistor symbols, and small
`Figure 2.1.
`transistor packages.
`
`inc
`/- " '
`i
`
`«npn Lia/\E‘
`\
`'5
`“‘9 E
`
`C
`
`,/"3
`
`pnp 3r 2!" f
`Kw
`‘ia\ \u E
`
`Figure 2.2. An ohmmeter's View of a transis—
`tor's terminals.
`
`3. Any given transistor has maximum
`values of 1C, 13, and VCE that cannot
`be exceeded without costing the exceeder
`the price of a new transistor (for typical
`values, see Table 2.1). There are also other
`limits, such as power dissipation (IO V33).
`temperature, VBE, etc., that you must keep
`in mind.
`
`4. When rules 1—3 are obeyed. IC is rough-
`ly proportional to IE and can be written as
`
`Let's begin. A transistor is a 3-terminal
`device (Fig. 2.1) available in 2 flavors (npn
`and pnp), with properties that meet
`the
`following rules for npn transistors (for pnp
`simply reverse all polarities):
`
`the current gain (also called
`where ting,
`beta),
`is typically about 100. Both Io
`and IE flow to the emitter. Note: The
`collector current
`is not due to forward
`
`conduction of the base-collector diode;
`
`0015
`
`

`

`SOME BASIC TRANSISTOR CIRCUITS
`2.02 Transistor switch
`
`6.’
`
`that diode is reverse—biased. Just think of
`it as "transistor action."
`
`Property 4 gives the transistor its useful—
`ness: A small current flowing into the base
`controls a much larger current flowing into
`the collector.
`
`mechanical
`gNuch
`
`1 .Ok
`
`HOV
`
`‘IUV 0.1A
`Iamn
`
`Warning: hFE is not a "good" transistor
`parameter; for instance, its value can vary
`from 50 to 250 for different specimens of a
`given transistor type. It also depends upon
`the collector current, collector-to-emitter
`voltage, and temperature. A circuit that
`depends on a particular value for by}; is
`a bad circuit.
`
`Note particularly the effect of property 2.
`This means you can't go sticking a voltage
`across the base—emitter terminals, because
`an enormous current will flow if the base
`
`is more positive than the emitter by more
`than about 0.6 to 0.8 volt (forward diode
`drop). This rule also implies that an op-
`erating transistor has VB 2 VE + 0.6 volt
`(VB = VE + VBE). Again, polarities are
`normally given for npn transistors; reverse
`them for pnp.
`Let us emphasize again that you should
`not
`try to think of the collector current
`as diode conduction.
`It isn't, because the
`collector—base diode normally has voltages
`applied across it in the reverse direction.
`Furthermore, collector current varies very
`little with collector voltage (it behaves like
`a not—too—great current source), unlike for—
`ward diode conduction, where the current
`rises very rapidly with applied voltage.
`
`SOME BASIC TRANSISTOR CIRCUITS
`
`2.02 Transistor switch
`
`Look at the circuit in Figure 2.3. This ap—
`plication. in which a small control current
`enables a much larger current to flow in an-
`other circuit, is called a transistor switch.
`From the preceding rules it is easy to un-
`derstand. When the mechanical switch is
`
`open, there is no base current. So, from
`
`Figure 2.3. Transistor switch example.
`
`rule 4, there is no collector current. The
`lamp is off.
`the base
`When the switch is closed,
`rises to 0.6 volt (base-emitter diode is in
`forward conduction).
`The drop across
`the base resistor is 9.4 volts, so the base
`current is 9.4mA. Blind application of rule
`4 gives [C = 940mA (for a typical beta
`of 100). That is wrong. Why? Because
`rule 4 holds only if rule 1 is obeyed; at a
`collector current of lOOmA the lamp has
`10 volts across it. To get a higher current
`you would have to pull the collector below
`ground. A transistor can't do this, and
`the result is what's called saturation - the
`
`collector goes as close to ground as it can
`(typical saturation voltages are about 0.05—
`0.2V, see Appendix G) and stays there. In
`this case. the lamp goes on, with its rated
`10 volts across it.
`
`Overdriving the base (we used 9.4mA
`when l.0mA would have barely sufficed)
`makes the circuit conservative;
`in this
`particular case it is a good idea, since
`a lamp draws more current when cold
`(the resistance of a lamp when cold is 5
`to 10 times lower than its resistance at
`
`operating current). Also transistor beta
`drops at low collector—to—base voltages, so
`some extra base current is necessary to
`bring a transistor into full saturation (see
`Appendix G). Incidentally, in a real circuit
`you would probably put a resistor from
`base to ground (perhaps 10k in this case)
`to make sure the base is at ground with
`the switch open.
`It wouldn't affect the
`
`0016
`
`

`

`different circuits with a single control sig-
`nal. One further advantage is the possibil-
`ity of remote cold switching, in which only
`dc control voltages snake around through
`cables to reach front-panel switches, rather
`than the electronically inferior approach
`of having the signals themselves traveling
`through cables and switches (if you run lots
`of signals through cables, you're likely to
`get capacitive pickup as well as some sig-
`nal degradation).
`
`"Transistor man "
`
`Figure 2.5 presents a cartoon that will help
`you understand some limits of transistor
`
` E
`
`Figure 2.5. "Transistor man" observes the base
`current, and adjusts the output rheostat in an
`attempt
`to maintain the output current
`ftp-E
`times larger.
`
`behavior. The little man‘s perpetual task
`in life is to try to keep [C = hFEIB;
`however, he is only allowed to turn the
`knob on the variable resistor. Thus he
`
`can go from a short circuit (saturation)
`to an open circuit (transistor in the "off
`state), or anything in between, but he isn't
`allowed to use batteries, current sources,
`etc. One warning is in order here: Don't
`think that
`the collector of a transistor
`
`TRANSISTORS
`
`64
`
`Chapter 2
`
`"on" operation, because it would sink only
`0.06mA from the base circuit.
`There are certain cautions to be ob-
`
`served when designing transistor switches:
`]. Choose the base resistor conservatively
`to get plenty of excess base cun‘ent, es-
`pecially when driving lamps, because of
`the reduced beta at
`low VCE. This is
`also a good idea for high-speed switching,
`because of capacitive effects and reduced
`beta at very high frequencies (many mega—
`hertz). A small "speedup" capacitor is of—
`ten connected across the base resistor to
`
`improve high-speed performance.
`2.
`If the load swings below ground for
`some reason (e.g.,
`it
`is driven from ac,
`or it
`is inductive), use a diode in series
`with the collector (or a diode in the reverse
`direction to ground) to prevent collector-
`base conduction on negative swings.
`3. For inductive loads, protect the transis-
`tor with a diode across the load, as shown
`in Figure 2.4. Without the diode the in—
`ductor will swing the collector to a large
`positive voltage when the switch is opened,
`most likely exceeding the collector-emitter
`breakdown voltage, as the inductor tries to
`maintain its "on" current from VCC to the
`collector (see the discussion of inductors in
`Section 1.31).
`
`+vrr
`
`Figure 2.4. Always use a suppression diode
`when switching an inductive load.
`
`Transistor switches enable you to switch
`very rapidly, typically in a small fraction of
`a microsecond. Also, you can switch many
`
`0017
`
`

`

`SOlWE BASIC TRANSISTOR CIRCUITS
`2.03 Emitter follower
`
`65
`
`It doesn't. Rather,
`lo