Exhibit 2006
`Bradium Technologies LLC - patent owner
`Microsoft Corporation - petitioner
`IPR2016-00449
`1
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`

`
`2
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`

`
`GEOGRAPHICAL. INFORMATION SYSTEMS
`
`3
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`

`
`VOLUME 1
`
`: PRINCIPLES
`
`GEOGRAPHICAL
`
`INFORMATION SYSTEMS
`
`PRINCIPLES AND APPLICATIONS
`
`EDITED BY
`
`DAVID J MAGUIRE,
`
`MICHAEL F GOODCHILD
`
`AND
`
`DAVID W RHIND
`
`
`
`
`
`Longmcin
`Scientific 8c
`—- Technical
`copublished in the United 5
`5 and Canada with
`John Wiley 8: Sons.
`.. New York
`
`
`
`4
`
`

`
`Lunuman Scientific and Technical,
`Lortgman Group U K. Ltd
`Langmatt Hausa. Burnt Mill. Harlow.
`Essex CM20 ZJE. England
`and Associated Camprmies rhmughrmr the wm-Id.
`capubfr'.r.ln-d in the United Stator and Canada with
`Jnhn Wiley dz Sum, !nr:., 605 TFrr'r.d'A.vmu.(.', New York,
`NY 101.53
`
`(E Ltmgman Group UK Limited 199]
`
`All |'lEl‘llS FBSEFVEUC 110 Pi‘-1'l0l'll'Ii9 publication may be
`reprttduccd. stored in a retrieval system, or lrnnsmillcd in
`any form ur by any moans, electronic, mechanical.
`photocopying. rcwrding. or otherwise withnut either the
`prior writtcn permission at the Publishers or a |it:e,nr:t,:
`permitting restricted copying in the United Kingdom
`issued by the Copyright Liccn.-ting Agency Ltd, 90
`'l‘ottenharn Court Road, London W] P 9HE_
`Trademarks
`Thmughuut this bottle lrudcnttarltcd names arr: used.
`Rather than put: a trrtdcmarlt symlnul in gt.-cry occurrence
`of a trademarked nan-n:. wt: state that we are using thr:
`nttmes only in an editorial las.-hiun and in the benefit oi the
`trademark owner with no intention or inlringcmcnt ol the
`trademark.
`
`Flltctl p-zrb.l'f.1'}‘l(’t)' I 99!
`
`British Library Cataloguing In Publication Data
`Maguiru, David J.
`Geographical information systems: Princlplcs and
`applications
`I. Title
`I]. Gnudchild. Michael F.
`III. Rhind. David W.
`910.901
`
`ISBN U~S82—tJ5l'16l-f:-
`
`Llbrary or Congms Cntnlngtng-tn-Publication Data
`Maguirc. D. J. (David J,)
`Gcngraphical
`information ssyyyystems I by D.
`Maguirc.
`Michael F Goodchild. and David W. Rhincl,
`p.
`cm.
`Includes bibliographical rulnrencci; and index.
`Contents: V. l. Prin¢lp|t:5—v. 2. Applications.
`ISBN I}—47l)—Zl 789-8
`
`J.
`
`1. Geographical information systems.
`I. Gtmdchilrl. Michael F.
`ll. Rhind.
`David.
`lll. Titlu.
`G'l'(}.2.M3S-d. W91
`910' 285 — dcltl
`
`9I—3']24
`CIP
`
`Set in Great Britain
`
`Printed and Bound in Great Britain at the Bath Press. Avon
`
`5
`
`

`
`Dedicated to the memory of
`
`DAVID S SIMONETT
`
`1926-90
`
`Dmuid Sfmunen was born in.4us!raHm'r1 I926. Affcr ettrnfrrg :1 Doffflrdff :1! mi’
`Um‘uerm‘ry of.9y¢!may, he bacarne a [ending pioneer in rhtsfield of Remote Sermirig.
`Imldingfm,-utly positions at rite Univerxiry of Katlsus, me University of Sydney and
`rim Univ;-r,si:y of Ca!r]"rJrn:'a, .S'anm Barbara. He was direclor afland um appI:'c'aH'cmS
`at Earth Samflile Carp fnom I 972 to I975.
`
`As Chair (:1 Srmm Barbara frrm: I975. he was able :0 bufid mat? 0f!h¢'f0rr.*m0.\‘f
`Gr.-ngraphy prngrarns in the US. cufn-u'rm1:'ng in 1988 wit}: the t.'.\‘!abh'.\‘/Im¢'m Of .416‘
`National Cemer for Geographic Informaman and Armfy.s'r'.\'. Thu‘ Scmm Barbara sire
`ofrha Gamer was rcnarrled me David .S'r'n1om:rr Ccnrerfor Spatial/1:mFy.w's in N90 in
`rEc(1gr:ili0rz afhis rah“ in :'.r.s' r'raan‘on. He rec-e:'u:~d me Hammns‘ A ward from the
`As.-.'ocu'ar:'an ofArm?ri:.“m1 Geographers and me‘ Victoria Maids’ from Phi’ Royu-'
`Geu_graphiL‘a{.90t.1i'ly.
`
`Dcwid S1'mom;-rr I05: :1 crJur'age(msfi;,=h! agamsr L-(mcer on Deva-rrnber 22. I990 in
`the course’ of the prepararfarr offralr c:onm'brm'cm to this book‘ The editors dedicate
`ti-u'.v book n) his memory am! to (he m.u,crcm.ci'.r'ng rofe he has pfrlysrl in me
`¢m.:mpmem of rhefie-Id of Geagrumicaf !nforman'rm Sysremr.
`
`6
`
`

`
`VOLUME1
`
`;
`
`PFi|NCiPLE5
`
`Prefiace
`List ofcanirihuirmv
`A clam: wiedgemerm
`
`Section I Overview
`
`introduction
`
`I) J Maguire, M F Gaadciiiid and D W Rhind
`
`I. An overview and definition uf (315
`
`D J Maguire
`
`2. The history of GIS
`J T Coppock and D W Rhinci
`
`3, The technological setting of GIS
`M F‘Goadchi[d
`
`4, The uurnrnercial setting of GIS
`J Dcmgermmid
`
`5. The governn1cr1tst:t.tin_g of GIS in the United Kingdom
`R Charley arm! R Huxlon
`
`6. The academic setting of (318
`D‘ J Unwin
`
`7. The organizational home for GIS in the scientific
`professional community
`J L Mo rrismi
`
`8. A critique UEGIS
`R TAangeenbrug
`
`Section [1 Principles
`
`1l'Il|'(]L1l..lI:l1(]l'i
`M Fdoodchild, D W Rhino’ and DJ Maguire
`
`xiii
`xvii
`xxvii
`
`3-7
`
`9-20
`
`21-43
`
`45 -54
`
`55 -65
`
`67-79
`
`31-90
`
`91-100
`
`I01-7
`
`111-17
`
`7
`
`

`
`VOLUME1
`
`:
`
`PRINCIPLES
`
`(2)
`9.
`
`It).
`
`11.
`
`Nature of spatial dala
`
`Concepts of space and geograplfical data
`A C Gafreli
`
`Coordinate systems and map projections for G13
`.0 H Malmg
`
`Language issues for GIS
`A U Frank and D M Mark
`
`. The error component in spatial data
`N R Chrismar:
`
`. Spatial data sources and data problems
`P F Fisher
`
`. G15 and remote sensing
`F W Davfx and D S Simonert
`
`(11)
`
`Digital representation
`
`. Computer systems and |ow—|evel data structures fur GIS
`Wm R Frttmidin
`
`. High-level spatial data structures for GIS
`M J Egenhofer and J R Herring
`
`17.
`
`G13 data capture hardware and :=.uftware
`M J‘ Jackson and P A Wo0d.sfrJrd
`
`119-34
`
`135-46
`
`147-63
`
`1 65-74
`
`175-89
`
`191-213
`
`215-25
`
`227-37
`
`239-49
`
`viii
`
`8
`
`

`
`VDLUME1
`
`:
`
`PRINCIPLES
`
`18. Database rnanagomontsystoms
`R G Henley
`
`1'9. Digital terrain modelling
`R Wallis! and M Heifer
`
`'20. Three-dimensional GIS
`J I-‘Roper and B Kelk
`
`(c) Functional issues
`
`21. Thu functionality of (315
`D J Maguire and J Darrg-'.’rrr1rJrId
`
`22.
`
`Information integration and GIS
`1 D H Shepherd’
`
`23. Cartographic modelling
`C D Tomlin
`
`24. Spatial data integration
`R Fiowerdeew
`
`25!-67
`
`269-97
`
`299—3l7
`
`319-35
`
`337-60
`
`36]-74
`
`3-75-87
`
`25. Ilcwfloping appropriate spatial analysis methods for GIS
`S Opé’.1"lShrJ'W
`
`389-402
`
`26. Spatial decision support systems
`P J’ Dertsham
`
`27. Knowledge-based approaches in (SIS
`T R Smith and Jr Yitmg
`
`403-12
`
`413-25
`
`ix
`
`9
`
`

`
`VOLUNIE1
`
`:
`
`PRINCIPLES
`
`(d) Display issues
`28. Visualization
`5' P Buflenfield and WA Mackaness
`
`29. Computer name placemem
`H Freeman
`
`30. Generalization of spatial databases.
`J-C‘ Muller
`
`(e) Operational issues
`
`31.
`
`(J15 stpcciiicutiun, evaluation and implemcntatitm
`A L Cilarke
`
`32. Legal aspects ufGlS
`E F Epstein
`
`33. Managing an operational (315: the UK National On-Linc
`Manpower Information System (NOMISJ
`M J’ Biakemore
`
`34. Spatial data exchange and standardization
`S C Gupril!
`
`Consolidated bibliography
`Lit‘! of ctr.'mr1ym.s'
`Author index
`Subject index
`
`427-43
`
`445-56
`
`457475
`
`477-88
`
`489-502
`
`503-13
`
`515-30
`
`53']-591
`593-598
`599-613
`615-1549
`
`10
`
`

`
`VOLUME 2
`
`: APPLICATIONS
`
`Preface
`List of t‘.0I1ll'ihlttrJr.\'
`.4;-lcrm wile dgernerrrs
`
`Section III Applications
`
`introductinn
`
`D W Rhind, D J Mrignire and M I+'(:'rJm;i::ltiid
`
`(a) National and international I‘-IS proerammes
`
`35. A LJSGS perspective on GIS
`L E Starr and K b'Artu'erA‘rm
`
`36. Development of G15-related activities at the
`Ordnance Survey
`M Sowton
`
`37. National G15 programmes in Sweden
`L Oil-0Sr3|.'l and B Rysredi
`
`38, The development of GIS in Japan
`.5‘ Knbo
`
`39. Land and Geographical lnfnrmatinn Syaterns in Australia
`J F ()'(."al{aghan anti H J Carrier
`
`40. GIS and developing, nations
`D R F Taylor
`
`(bl Sncio-ecnnnmie applications
`
`41. Land information systems
`P F Dnie
`
`42. Glsatntiutilities
`H P MUhtJIlE_Y
`
`43. Car nnvigalinn systems
`M White‘
`
`44. Counting the people: the role of GIS
`D wnmna
`
`4:}, G15 and market analysis
`J R Bearumam
`
`xiii
`xvii
`xxvii
`
`ll—22
`
`23-38
`
`39-46
`
`47-56
`
`57-70
`
`71-84
`
`85-99
`
`l01—l4
`
`I15-25
`
`127-37
`
`139-5|
`
`11
`
`

`
`VOLUIVIEZ
`
`: APPLICATIONS
`
`(at) Environmental applications
`
`46. 3011 information systcins
`P A Burrcmgli
`
`47.
`
`Integrfltinn 01‘ genscientific data using (‘:18
`G F Bcmharn-Carter
`
`48. Multlsourcc, multinational cnvimnmcntal G15: lessons
`learnt from CORINE
`H M Maurwcy,
`49. Environmental da1'nt1ase:-; and U15
`J R G Tn-wrlshend
`
`50. Global databases and their implications for GIS
`D M Ct'm'k. D /1 Hastirigx and J J Kinerrtaii
`
`(11) Management applications
`
`51. C315 and public policy
`H W Calkim
`
`52. Urban G15 applications
`R Parrot: and F P Slut:
`
`53. Land resource infurniation systems
`K C Sidcrelis
`
`54. Land managemcni applications ot'CilS in the state of
`Minnesota
`,4 Rcabineite
`
`55.
`
`(313 in island resource planning; u case study in map
`analysis
`J K Berry
`
`5fiv llitegratcd planning infurnmtion systems
`D J Comm and W L Shirley
`
`Section IV Epilogue
`
`Epilogue
`D W Rhirad. M F(;rJ(J£l'-$'I1J'Mfl!!d D J‘ Maguire
`
`C'0n.i‘6-Hciareti bibliography
`Lia‘: ofa::mnyma'
`A nth or index
`Su bfect iizdex
`
`153-69
`
`171-84
`
`]85—200
`
`201-'16
`
`217-31
`
`233-45
`
`247-50
`
`261 -73
`
`275-83
`
`235-95
`
`297-310
`
`313-27
`
`329-36‘?
`39} -39:5
`_?97—4I I
`413-447
`
`xii
`
`12
`
`

`
`THE HISTORY OF (318
`
`J T COPPOCK AND D w RI-[IND
`
`Cfurrrputer-ba.ved GIS have been met! sirtcr at Iran‘: the law I91593‘; thcir rmmua.’
`prrde-:‘£'St-‘or5' were in use perhrrpx 100 years earlier. Acknawledgirtg the paucity of
`wc*l!vrt'ot:'trrnrrttcrf evidence, this chapter dE.r¢:r£bt.'.s' the buckgrourzd to the: det-alopmertt
`r:»f.ru¢'J1 .s'y.vt.9m.r. sfrr‘.5‘5t'rzg the context in wF:t'c'h strait duvelaprrtent took place-, the role
`r2f'orgun£2aM'mt.s and t'nd¢'vL'duul.s‘ where mil‘ can he rmrrrrrtrinerl. and the appNrrHiar!.s‘
`wlzfch the .1'y.l'te'm.!* were t'tmmded to trust. A broad definittbn is taker; of (its 5.-_: as
`nm to rxcrlude any xignificant c1rvelrJ_amcnt.r.' r:'ort:pure'r mappmg .r_vsrent.r ofrttt types
`(incfztdfng those with lltte-prirtrergrapitics, the jbrerurtmertu‘ of crmtempurary raster
`sy.s'rertt.r) are Ertcltlderi.
`It is clernartsrrated that rrtort, but by no mrrttrr all, rafting early dew‘-Iapmenrs
`art'gt'natr:d In Nan}: Arrrerlcu. The roles afkey orgrrnlzatiortx star]: as the US flu ream
`(Ifthc Certms, the US Gcaltngical Survey, the Harvard Laban.-rury far Contpurer
`(.:'rczpht'c.s‘ and Ike? Exprrirncrttrrl Cartography Unit are dr.rc'rt'bed and the umvities of
`the carnrrtercialmrtnr are exentpftfled by :4 care rtmcty uf En viranrneratal Symrru
`Rewarcfr frrstittrte. Reasons are suggestedfor srgntjicartr frtturttultlarml thffz-:renc¢-rs in
`the rirvelaprmrtt of G!.'i', match as the d!tz'md9.5‘ to awnersltlp afdata and the pat-cemzd
`nah! afthe state. It is conclude-d that several stages of auoltrtlotr af GIS can he
`Eltffiflfd. Tl'1é’.§‘t£‘ owtrlnp in nfimc and occur at r1.I'_ffr'r'ent mam.-zrttr fr: dtfifrrrrtt parts .-tf
`the world. Tlw first. or plant-erfrtg age. e,ttertde.:;t' from the early 19605 to about I975,-
`l'r1.l-l11'.\‘, intiividrtdl prnrotrafirrer mare’ of rrt'tr'cal' lrrtprrrrrrncr in detrrtrtinfrtg what was
`arfirirvdd. The .rr.°mr1d pltare, approximately from 1973 mitt"! the early 1980:. saw a
`regttlurizrlttbrt rlf rxperirnrttr and pmc'rt'cr witftirt nr1rl'fo.rrrra.'d by natirgnal agerirfiesf
`tacalexpertnrznt and action: continued rmrrurttmellerl and dttpllcatfart of efibrt was
`Cornmrm. The rim’ phase, rurm trig from abarrt 1932 until the late £‘)8G',g-, was that of
`corrrrrtercial dorninancr. Thefaurlh (and current) pitaxe is one of user dnminatme.
`facilitated by dorrtpatitrorr rmtorrg vartdrtrx, ernbryonic standardization an open
`.vy.m=rrz.r and m:'rr-amng €¢!gl"e.'E?l"P'l-£?!|lt:i|.ri.l'.'1u‘.’lA!'BF'.l' perceprlorl of what a GIS’ should do
`and look like.
`
`lflfflonuc-"ON
`
`A variety of infnrmatiott indicates that lhc ficld of
`CNS has expanded rapidly in recent years (see
`Maguire 199! in this voIumc).Frun1 where did all
`this business and the rlasulting johs arise?
`Unl1applly.wc scarcely know. (313 is :1 field in
`which history is little more than anecdotal. To
`rectify Il1iS. 3 .\‘I::1I‘cl'l through the archives of
`
`government departments and agencies would
`Cartainly help. As ycl. however. few rtrgnnlzarions
`have given any thought to fnrmali:-Ling the history of
`their involvement in GIS and at least one major
`player (Ordnance Survey; sun: Finch 1937] has
`t‘:':fusr:d to lct its detailed records be examined by
`external researchers. Less certainly. the records of
`computer hardware and rmftwarc companies could
`also be 5. sourct: of relevant information but no such
`
`13
`
`

`
`J T Coppeclt and D W Flhind
`
`material has been uncovered. Unfortunately for
`those writing the history of GIS. neither staff of
`commercial contpanies not government offieials
`have a tradition of writing books or papers on their
`experience of an emerging technology. Research
`staff in government or private sector research
`organizations are citceptiotts to this rule but. even
`for them. writing papers for the benefit of the
`scientific community at large has it relatively ICIW
`priority. As far as is known. the only nfficinl r||l¢|'nDt
`anywhere to provide a broad overview of the lield as
`a whole is that given by the Report at’ the
`Committee of inquiry into the llimtliing oi‘
`Geographic Information (Department of the
`Enviromnem 1937', Rhind and Mounscy 1939].
`Tlte main source ofinformation. with all the
`risks of partisan bias. rcntains researchers in the
`academic community. in reality. however. even the
`numbers of academics working in this field were
`quite small until the expansion of the last decade.
`Moreover, as Chrisman (1933) and Rhirld (1933)
`both testify, those active in universities in this field
`in the early stages ofthc development oi’GlS were
`olten outside the formal academic career structure
`and were so heavily involved in project work that
`they had little time or inclination to write papers. in
`any case. at the beginning there were no obvious
`outlets for publication in a topic that was seen as
`marginal to at large number of interests; Rhintl's
`(1976) report, for instance. may well be the First
`example of a record of GIS conference papers
`which were described as such in a rnainstrearn
`academic publication. While the advent of specialist
`GIS i;ont'ercnccs (often disguised by use of other
`titles such as AUTOCARTO) provided one
`pttblislting rnecltaitistn from 1974 onwards. the early
`conference proceedings were intermittent and were
`not easily accessible to those who had not attended
`the gatherings. We do not believe this postulatctl
`paucity of recorded history represents
`i11Cl'Il‘I‘l'[.1l.3il;'.t"|l:l.‘.' {'.l|"l O'|,ll' pi'.ll'lI! Fl ClJI|'I.'(.'.£-':'|.'!E|I'.I[l.l.‘Tl'l.CC
`prompted by the editor of Plirarogrrirrrntetric
`Eirgineeriiig and iterriote Smsing. for exarnple
`(Marble 1989; Tontlinson 1989). generated great
`controversy and revealed it loci: of doculnentation
`on the first use of (ilii in the refereed literature.
`Finally and most crucially. the content oi’ any
`history of (its tlepetids in large measure on the
`dolinition adopted. A strict definition, its El
`computer-based system for rirrnlysing spatially
`rcferctteed data, would greatly restrict the field
`
`because, with the major exception of the Canada
`Geographic Information System (Tontlinsnn 1.967).
`this was not a common feature until the 19805. A
`more general interpretation. as any system for
`handling geograpltical data, would greatly widen the
`tield and hence enlarge the number of contributors,
`Such a definition would embrace. not only the
`whole held of autoniation in cartography (whir.‘.|'t
`was often the precursor to any involvement in (H5
`and provided, in tertns oi contputer-generated
`grapltics. the most common form of output for most
`early systems). but also many general-purpose
`statistical and database packages capable of
`handling .r,y.z point data. Formal definitions of GIS
`are not. therefore. of much help and rclativcty little
`reliance is placed on them in this beolt i11iilWl'l0lE.
`in any event. the field evolved not from some ex
`crtrmedra definition of the subject but through sets of
`interactions. The main haeltgrounds of those
`involved have been cartography. computer science.
`geography. surveying, remote sensing. comrnereiill
`data processing. mitthentatics and statistics. The
`pttrposes to which the systems have been put
`include environmental protection. urban and
`regional planning. land managernent. property
`ownership and notation. resource rnanagctttcnt. the
`management. of utilities, site locationi military
`intelligence and tactics, and many others — as later
`chapters in this volume testify. “The field has
`developed. then, from a melting pot of concepts.
`ideas, practice. terminology and prejudice brought
`together by people from rrtany different
`bar:kgt'ounds.. interacting with each other often on it
`chance and bilateral basis in the early days and
`normally proceeding in blissful ignorance of what
`was going on elsewhere. The csscttce oi" G [S is thus
`its multidisciplinary character, with some at least oi
`those involved in developing this technology having
`little previous involvement. or even interest. in the
`hantllirtg of ge-ograpltieal data as such [sec Maguire,
`1991 in this volume for further discussion of the
`definition of (HS),
`‘this review of the history oi’ GIS is inevitably a
`consequence of the authors‘ accidental exposure to
`c-ttrly developments and their own set of value
`judge111ents;difit:rent views certainly exist. such as
`that manilestcd in Cool-:e's portrayal of the
`gerte:1logiI:alstructu1'o of geoproccssing systems in
`general (Fig. 2.1). ln particular. it is suspected that
`the role of those who did not contribute to the
`inrtnal literature has been untlerplayed. especially
`
`14
`
`

`
`those working in lhc military. While regrettable,
`this is probably unavoidable: history very often
`consists solely of what has been written down.
`
`THE GRASS ROOT$ EVOLUTION OF GIS
`
`What sccrris clear is that there were many
`initiatives. usually occurring independently and
`often in ignorance of each other. concerned with
`different facets of the field and frequently
`originating in the interests. oftcn disparate. of
`particillar individuals. Like the reality (as -apposed
`to the reporting) of scientific rc.r.oarcI1.. there was no
`strictly logical progression towards the development
`and implementation of (315. but rather a mixture of
`failures, set-backs, diversions and successes.
`inevitably. more is known about the successes titan
`ahout the failures which, according to both
`Dangcrmond and Smith (1988) and Tomlinson
`(1988). have been numerous and often attributable
`to bad advice, ignorance and a determination to no
`it alone. This is unfortunate because failures are
`often as illuminating as successes, if not more so
`[Gilt‘.'S 1987). What also seems clear is that
`particular individuals and institutions played key
`roles, acting as examples or as sources of expertise.
`advice and often skilled personnel: since these
`contributions are now better recorded than is the
`generality of progress. this account will lcnrl to
`eninhasizc thcrn. particularly those of Howard
`Fisher in the Harvard Laboratory for Computer
`Graphics (LCG). Roger Tomlinson in the Canada
`Geographic Information System (CGIS) and Jack
`Dangcrmond in the Environmental Syslcrns
`Research Institute (ESRIJ in North America, and
`David P. Bickmorc at the Experimental
`Cartography Unit (ECU) in the United Kingdom.
`Many others played significant parts tnigl Tfllrlfir
`1959', Nordbcck 1962; Cook 1966: Ilagcrstrand
`1967; Diello. Kirk and Callandc-r I9h9 and Hoyle
`(soc Rhind 1938)). but those four have been the
`subject of particular articles in -.1 special and
`invaluable issue of Tia.’ .4r'nrri'crur Crrrrogrnpirrr
`(Tomlinson and Pctchenik 1983}. Fortunately. tllcsc
`individuals sccrn to typify the interests. attitutlcs
`and contniitments of those working in the vintage
`era of GIS from the late 1950s to the curl :.'Il“tl1e
`1970s.
`The: niotivutions for developing (315 or
`
`The History of GIS
`
`coniporicnts oi such systems have varied very
`wiclcly. They have ranged from academic curiosity
`or challenge when faced with the possibility of using
`new sources of data or tecliniques. through the
`desire for greater speed or ctlicicricy in the conduct
`of operations on spatially referenced data. to the
`realisation that desirable taslcs could be undertaken
`in no other way. The last was undoubtedly a
`powerful motive in two key developments which urc:
`discussed in more detail holow — the O.\ti'ort.l System
`of Automated Cartograpliy and the Canada
`Crcngraphic information System. It was the
`experience of publishing the Atlas of Great Britniri
`and Norilitrrn lrclrrirri (tiaicklnorc and Shaw 1963)
`and the criticisms this attracted of being out nfdate
`and unwieldy that convinced D. P. Bicltmurc.
`prohntily in 1958 but certainly no later than iltfill.
`that only the computer could provide a cost-
`cffcctivc mechanism to check. edit and classify data.
`to mridcl situations and to facilitate experiments in
`graphic.’ display (Rhind I988). Similarly. it was the
`impossihilily ol‘ arialysing rnaps of East Africa at an
`acceptable cost that first lcd R. Tnmlinsnri (I983) to
`think of ti digital approach. A calculation made in
`1SlI‘_t5 indicated the need for some $Can 8 million in
`1965 prices and a requirement for 556 technicians
`for three years in order to overlay the I
`: Slltlllh scale
`rnaps of the Canada Land Inventory; this
`unacceptable level of resources acted as an
`incentive to develop a more automated approach.
`It was. of course. the advcnt of the digital
`computer and the order—ol'—n1agIiitutle decrease in
`coliiputing costs every six years over a 30-year
`period (Simonett 1988) that made such ultcrnutivt:
`digitally based apprnaelies viable. II is interesting in
`note. however, that not all curly work used the
`digital cornputcr. Thus pcrliaps the earliest attempt
`to aultamate map production. the preparation of the
`/trial‘ of the Brr'rr'.rh Flora. cniployctl a modified
`punch card tabulatnr to produce niaps on pre-
`printed paper from cards on Wl'Ilt.'l‘t had been
`punchccl the grid references of rccorclccl
`occurrences (Pcrring and Walters 19tr1"l. Altliuugh
`this approach was not repeated and Ferring (1964)
`later rccognin-d that the analysis of voluminous
`data could more easily be undertaken by computer.
`it anticipated the wirlespn.-ad niarrping in the late
`l‘:l(il.ls by line printer. It is also interesting to note
`that Perring was a botanist. with no training in
`cartography. who was faced with the task of
`providing 2l'ItIlJ maps from data that had been
`
`15
`
`

`
`J TCoppock and D W Rhind
`
`MAP-INFO
`1987
`
`
`
`Universlty
`of Oregon
`
`Address
`Information
`System (AIS)
`
`Z|P+4, etc.
`
`PC Arc-Into
`
`lntergraph
`1969
`
`
`
`Sinton
`
`S nercom
`
`Y
`
`AFC-W0
`
`Marehouse
`
`Odyssey
`
`‘_
`
`
`
`Automap It
`Symap
`1970
`1964
`
`
`Map-Models
`1965
`
`Polygon
`Intersection &
`ova.-|a 5 Stem
`
`y
`
`
`Ganesa
`Group
`
`1931
`
`
`Caner
`
`ESFII
`1969
`
`1980
`Mid—70's
`International
`
`
`
`
`
`7
`
`MAPMASTER
`
`Decision
`HESOUFCBS
`
`
`
`1962 ‘
`
`
`
`Rand
`
`statmap
`
`Fl orma I
`. 5"’S““i‘3n
`Display System
`(DIDS) 1982
`
`’
`IDS)
`
`System(
`1978
`
`Dangermond
`
`carom
`
`Schweitzer
`
`\
`
`1974
`
` Systems
`
`l
`.
`,',‘§;'i‘;;‘:,,
`
`
`
`
`
`ra
`n
`C
`La dt
`PC 1955
`
`Landtrac
`1983
`
`sa"die9°
`Council
`at Govern-
`
`ments
`
`Geosigm
`1986
`
`1973
`Arithmicon
`
`ETAK
`Map Engine
`
`University 0
`Washington
`Seattle
`
`Rand—Map
`1985
`
`Product
`Videodisk
`
`PGMAP
`
`Johnson
`
`Fig. 2.1 An individual perception of the genealogy of geoprocessing in the United States (Pers. Comm.
`Don Cooke, 1990). Circles are ‘places’, i.e. companies, government agencies, universities, etc.; rectangles
`are ideas or concepts, often embodied in a software package or database; directed lines show direct or
`indirect migration or influence in a number of different ways. Examples of flows or lack of expected ones
`include:
`
`16
`
`

`
`The History of GIS
`
`Dynarnatch
`
`Matchmaker
`1 985
`
`Street Address
`Matehie
`5Y3TB|'I'I 1 69
`
`1983
`
`
`
`db
`
`on I
`
`Preeuslnu
`Inc. men
`
`
`
`
`
`Transport
`Sun: 95.-
`Coding Guide
`
`Andreas
`Gndin Guide
`
`1 E6
`
`New
`HIVII1
`
`(39nuns UM
`Stud
`:
`:
`-
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`SCRIS
`ea-'11
`
`Unimateh
`
`70
`
`spit
`Tape
`
`ital
`Di
`Grier:
`raph
`Line
`I9?1
`
`
`
`
`
`
`l.I.3.
`
`Cleelogleal
`Su may
`
`
`
`eta Donald Cooke 1988
`
`I Harvard Labs influence on GIS vendors (Merehouse to ESRI, Simon to lntergraph: Odyssey tn
`Synercom)
`I DIME was independent from the SACS (Small Area Census Studies)
`0 the diagram suggests that the USGS and the US Postal Service had very little influence on most
`developments.
`
`17
`
`

`
`J Tcoppockand D W Flhind
`
`recorded on punch cards. His initiative also
`illustrates an aspect to be repeated in many later
`projects where the application of technology was
`driven by an urgent need of the users. that such it
`task would have to take advantage nfthc best
`available technology — whatever its limitations —
`rather than await the ideal solution; it was also
`similar to many later applications in that it was a
`‘one-oft" development which. having served its
`purpose, was not taken any further. Slightly later
`work (around 1967) by Berlin in Paris involved the
`modilication of IBM ‘go|flta|l‘ typewriters driven
`directly by punch card readers to produce
`proportional symbol maps.
`It is also clear that it was in North America that
`
`most of the significant early developments in. and
`applications»: of, GIS and related technology were
`made. By the early 1980s. Tomlinson (1985)
`estimated that there were probably more than llltltl
`systems in North America, a Figure that must have
`represented ti very high proportion of the systems
`then existing in the world as a whole, The bulk of
`this account will accordingly focus on North
`America, with later references to the United
`Kingdom and other European countries and to
`developments elsewhere in the developed world. it
`is only in the late 1980s that any significant
`developments have occurred in developing
`countries and then often through the aid and
`encouragement of developed countries (see Taylor
`1991 in this volume].
`
`THE NORTH AMERICAN SCENE
`
`Aangcenbrug (pr.-rs. comm, 199“) has argued that
`the earliest antecedents of GIS in the United States
`
`can be traced back to the University of Wasliingtnn.
`in the 19503;. both geographers (notably Garrison)
`and transportation engineers (notably I-Iorwood)
`developed quantitative methods in transportation
`studies. Garrison's colleagues and students included
`Berry, Tobler and Marble; Horwoods included
`Earl: and Dueker [see Due'ker‘s important 1974
`paper). Much of the original leadership of the
`Urban and Regional l.Itformatiot| Systems
`Association (founded in 1963) and that of other key
`bodies was derived from or directly influenced hy
`this group.
`By the early 1960s. at least in North America,
`
`large mainframe computers were becoming widely
`twailrible. in 1964. IBM introduced its 360/65
`computer, with a processing speed 40f] times fast:-.-,r
`and a memory 32 times as great as its predecessor,
`the IBM I4tll (Tondinson l‘~Jti5_i. ‘These macltines
`were employed primarily for one of two very
`different purposes: for routine administrative and
`data ntanagctnent tasks in business and government
`(such as pay-roll. stock control and record keeping
`of various kinds) and for scientific applications
`involving extensive computations, notably in
`chemistry. mathematics and physics. There was
`inevitably a good deal of discussion in government
`departments and agencies about the possibility of
`applying computer technology to handle numerical
`data, especially where these were already in
`rnschine-readable term. as with many censuses.
`where punch«card tocltnology was widely used. In
`1965 the US Bureau ofthe Budget compiled an
`inventory of automatic data processing in the
`Federal Government, in which it noted the
`significant use of computers to handle land use and
`land title data [Cook and l(enncdy1'96f:).Tltc
`following year, a conference on a comprehensive
`unificrl land system at the University of Cincinnati
`was advised that a system must he designed such
`that it obtained lhc maximum benefit from
`
`electronic data processing equipment (Cook 1966).
`The conference also heard that the District of
`
`Columbia already had at property data bank. which
`could be searched, updated and retrieved. and that
`Nassau County in New York would be the first to
`provide fully-automated access to records of land
`ownership.
`The significance of the developments at the US
`Bureau of the Census. stemming directly from its
`need for automated address matching, is difficult to
`ovcrcmphasiztc. This need arose from the
`predominantly mail out/mail back nature of the US
`census and the requirement to produce area based
`tabulations from records whose only geographical
`reference was the postal address. All early advisory
`committee on small area data included Garrison
`(see above), who urged a development project to
`test automated data linkage procedures. A director
`hired to run the test. Cnby Smith. rccruiled :1 team
`which included Corbett. Cooke. Masllcld. White.
`Farnsworlh. Jaro. Broome and others who appear
`elsewhere in these pages. The first demonstrations
`of address matching. computer mapping and small
`area data analysis were provided through the 1967
`
`18
`
`

`
`The History of GIS
`
`New Haven Census Use Study (USBC 1969-73].
`Subsequent studies elsewhere in the llnitcd States.
`the launch of the DIME workshops in 1970 and the
`development and widespread distribution of
`ADMATCI-I (address matching software) all had
`major impacts‘ upon government and academia in
`the United States. Indeed. the Census Use Study
`also sponsored the First International DIME
`Colloquium in 1972. leading to the creation of the
`Segment (later re-named as the Spatially)
`Orientated Referencing Systems Association (or
`SORSA), an organization which still holds
`international conferences.
`Increasing availability oi computers in
`univcrsilier; was undoubtedly instrumental in the
`development of the quantitative revolution in
`academic geography in the early webs (lzunes and
`Martin 1975; Hudson 1979), particularly in the lield
`of spatial analysis (a term which was in general use
`by the late 1960s —sce Berry and Marble 1963). with
`its emphasis on the statistical treatment of
`geographical data and on modelling. However,
`these applications. despite their potential relevance
`to handling geographical data. had littlt: interaction
`with computer mapping, primarily because the
`statistical methodology was largely aspalial. One
`exception is a paper in an edited collection on
`computers in geography which related modelling to
`a crude cartography using the line printer (Rushtnn
`l£i6‘Jl. it is only in the middle und late 1980s that
`successful attempts have been made to develop
`closely coupled spatial statistics and geographical‘
`displays.
`Computers in the 19605 had. in general, nn
`explicitly graphical facilities. usually operated in
`batch mode and were very cxpensivc by today‘s
`standards. Despite this. Tobler (1959) had early
`recognized their potential for automating
`cartography. as had Nordbcck (1962) in Sweden.
`There were, indeed. developments in automating
`cartography in several national agencies concerned
`with mapping and in military establishments which
`could al:‘t'ord equipment that was prohibitively
`expensive to others. The US National Ocean Survey
`was creating. charts on a Cicrhcr plotter for the
`production of ‘figure fields‘ or matrices of depth
`values and such organizations as the Aeronautical
`Charting. and information Center at St Louis. the
`Rome Air Development Center and the Central
`intelligence Agency were active in aspects oi‘ this
`field (l')iel|o. Kirk and Callender 1968'. Tomlinson
`
`1972), By the end of the limits, map production
`assisted by computer appears to have become
`widespread; for example, the Canadian
`Hydrographicfiurvcy had automated display
`facilities in operation and Surveys and Mapping had
`emhatrked on a programme to apply automated
`cartography to the 'l :50 OCID scrics in Canada. In the
`main, however. the aim In computer applications in
`national mapping agencies was to mimic nutnual
`methods of production and so to produce maps that
`were virtually indistinguishable from their manual
`counterparts. Little itrformatiun appears to be
`available on the extent to which these methods were
`cost effective, although Tomlinson (1985) suggests
`that the high cost of hardware placed them at a
`disadvantage in competition with manual systems:
`continuing evaluations of costs by the Ordnance
`Survey in Britain, for example. did not lind
`attttjnnated approaches to map production as a
`whole to be cost effective until the l98lls. Unlike the
`
`situation in Britain. where a digitizing production
`line was in operation from 1973, the Topographic
`Division of the United States Geological Survey did
`not implement plans to automate the production of
`topograpltic maps until the start of the 19305 — a
`severe handicap to the development of many
`geographically-hosed information systems in the
`United States.
`An entirely different alpproach to the
`automation of cartography was adopted elsewhere.
`notably in the universities. using the standard litre
`printer as :1 mapping device. In cartographic terms.
`the results were crude. but this was not the point;
`thc aim was to produce maps quickly and cheaply so
`as to display the clraracteristics of the data
`(especially statistical data for eerrsus tracts and the
`like) and to undertake simple