VWGoA - Ex. 1009
`Volkswagen Group of America, Inc., Petitioner
`1
`
`

`
`
`
`AUTOMOTIVE
`ELECTRONICS
`HANDBOOK
`
`
`
`Ronald K. Jurgen Editor in Chief
`
`McGraw-Hill, Inn.
`
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`Library of Congress Cataloging—in-Publication Data
`
`
`
`Automotive electronics handbook J’ Ronald Jurgen, editor in chief.
`p.
`cm.
`includes index.
`ISBN D—U’i—033189-8
`1. Automobiles—Electronic equipment.
`TL2';'2.5.A982
`1994
`629.25 '49—dc
`
`1. Jurgen, Ronald K.
`
`94-39724
`CIP
`
`Copyright @ 1995 by McGraw—Hill, Inc. All rights reserved. hinted in the
`United States of America. Except as permitted under the United States
`Copyright Act of 19?6, no part of this publication may be reproduced or dis-
`tributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a data base or retrieval
`system, without the prior written permission of the publisher.
`
`234567890 AGMIAGM 9098'.-'65
`
`ISBN 0-0’? 4333189-8
`
`The sponsoring editor for this book was Stephen S Chapman, the editing
`supervisor was Virginia Carroll, and the production supervisor was
`Suzanne W B. Rapcavage. It was set in Times Roman by North Market
`Street Graphics.
`
`Printed and bound by Arcata Graphics/Martinsburg.
`
`McGraw-Hill books are available at special quantity discounts to use as pre-
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`more information, please write to the Director of Special Sales, McGraw—
`Hill, Inn, 11 West 19th Street, New York, NY 10011. Or contact your local
`bookstore.
`
`Information contained in this work has been obtained by McGraw-
`Hill, Inc. from sources believed to be reliable. However, neither
`McGraw-Hill nor its authors guarantee the accuracy or complete-
`ness of any information published herein, and neither McGraw-
`Hill nor its authors shall be responsible for any errors, omissions,
`or damages arising out of use of this information. This work is
`published with the understanding that McGraw-Hill and its authors
`are supplying information, but are not attempting to render engi-
`neering or other professional services If such services are
`required, the assistance of an appropriate professional should be
`
`sought
`
`This book is printed on acid-free paper.
`
`4
`
`

`
`-This book is dedicated to Robert H. Lewis and to
`the memories of Douglas R. Jurgen and Marion
`Schappel.
`
`5
`
`

`
`6
`
`

`
`
`
`CONTENTS
`
`
`Contributors
`Preface
`xvii
`
`xv
`
`Part 1
`
`Introduction
`
`Chapter 1. Introduction RonaIdK.Jurgen
`
`1.3
`
`1.1 The Dawn of a New Era I 1.3
`1.2 The Mir:rocorr1puterTal(es Center Stage I 1.4
`1.3 Looking to theFuture I 1.5
`References I I6
`
`Part 2 Sensors and Actuators
`
`
`
`Chapter 2. Pressure Sensors Handy Frank 2.3
`
`2.1 Automotive Pressure Measurements I 2.3
`2.2 AJ.llOJ.‘n0|IiV3AppllCailOI1S for-Pressure Sensors I 2.5
`2.3 Technologies forsensirig Pressure I 2.15
`2.4 Future Pressure—Sensing Developments I 2.23
`Glossary I 2.24
`Bibliography I 2.24
`
`Chapter 3. Linear and Angie Position Sensors
`
`Paul‘ Nfcirson
`
`3.1
`
`3.1 Introduction I 3.1
`3.2 Classification of Sensors I 3.1
`3.3 Position SensorTechn0logies I 3.2
`3.4 Interfacing Sensors to Control Systems I 3.16
`Glossary I 3.17
`References I 3.}?
`
`Chapter 4. Flow Sensors Robert E. Bicking
`
`4.1
`
`4.1 Introduction I 4.1
`4.2 Automotive Applications of Flow Sensors
`4.3 Basic Classification of Flow Sensors I 4.3
`4.4 Applicable Flow MeasurementTechnologies I 4.4
`Glossary I 4.8
`Bibliography I 4.9
`
`I 4.1
`
`7
`
`

`
`Viti
`
`CONTENTS
`
`Chapter 5. Temperature, Heat, and Humidity Sensors Randy Frank
`
`5.1
`
`5.1 Temperature, l'leat,and Humidity 1 5.1
`5.2 Automotive Temperature Measurements 1 5.5
`5.3 Humidity Sensing and Vehicle Performance 1 5.12
`5.4 Sensors forTemperature 1 5.14
`5.5 Humidity Sensors 1 5.21
`5.6 Conclusions 1 5.22
`Glossary 1 5.23
`Bibliography 1 5.23
`
`Chapter 6. Exhaust Gas Sensors Hans-Martin Wledenmann,
`Gerhard Hfitzel, Harald Neumann, Johann Hlegel, and Helmut Weyl
`
`6.1
`
`6.1 Basic Concepts 1 6.1
`6.2 Principles of Exhaust Gas Sensors for Lambda Control
`6.3 Technology of Ceramic Exhaust Gas Sensors 1 6.11
`6.4 Factors Affecting the Control Characteristics of Lambda = 1 Sensors
`6.5 Applications 1 6.18
`6.6 Sensor Principles for Other Exhaust Gas Components 1 6.20
`Bibliography 1 6.22
`
`1 6.5
`
`1 6.14
`
`Chapter '1. Speed and Acceleration Sensors William C. Dunn
`
`7.1
`
`7.1 Introduction 1 7.1
`7.2 Speed-Sensing Devices 1 7.2
`'13 Automotive Applications for Speed Sensing 1 7.6
`7.4 Acceleration Sensing Devices 1 7.8
`7.5 Automotive Applications for Accelerometers 1 7.18
`’1.6 New Sensing Devices 1 7.22
`7.7 FutureApplications 1 7.24
`7.8 Summary 1
`37.26
`Glossary 1 7.27
`References 1 7.28
`
`
`
`Chapter 8. Engine Knock Sensors William G. Wolber 8.1
`
`8.1 Introduction 1 8.1
`8.2 The Knock Phenomenon 1 8.2
`8.3 Technologies for Sensing Knock 1 8.4
`8.4 Summary 1 8.9
`Glossary 1 8.9
`References 1 8.9
`
`Chapter 9. Engine Torque Sensors William G. Wolber
`
`9.1
`
`9.1 Introduction 1 9.1
`92 Automotive Applications of'I'orque Measurement
`9.3 Direct'Ibrque Sensors 1 9.6
`9.4Inferrcd'I‘orq11eMeasL1rernent
`9.5 Summary 1 9.13
`Glossary 1 9.13
`References 1 9.14
`
`1 9.8
`
`1 9.3
`
`8
`
`

`
`CONTENTS
`
`ix
`
`10.1
`
`Chapter 10. Actuators K1ausMt'ifler
`
`10.1 Preface 1 10.1
`10.2 Types of Electromechanical Actuators 1 10.2
`10.3 Autorr1otiveActuators 1 10.19
`10.4 TechnologyforFutureApplication 1 10.27
`Acknowledgments 1 1030
`Glossary 1 10.30
`Bibliography 1 10.31
`
`Part 3 Control Systems
`
`Chapter 11. Automotive Microcontrollers David S. Boehmer
`
`11.3
`
`11.1 Microcorltroller Architecture and Performance Characteristics 1 11.3 -
`11.2 Memory 1 11.24
`11.3 Low-Speed Input10utput Ports 1 11.31
`11.4 High-Speed I10 Ports 1 11.36
`115 Serial Communications 1 11.41
`11.6 Analog-to—Digital Converter 1 11.45
`11.1 Failsafe Methodologies
`1 11.49
`11.8 E.1tureTrencls 1 11.51
`Glossary 1 11.54
`Bibliography 1 11.55
`
`Chapter 12. Engine Control
`and Shari Stottier
`
`Gary C. Hfrsehfieb, Gottfried Schiiier,
`
`12,1 Objectives of Electronic Engine Control Systems 1 12.1
`12.2 Spark Ignition Engines 1 12.5
`12.3 Compression Ignition Engines 1 12.32
`
`Chapter 13. Transmission Control Kurt Neufler, Wolfgang Buflmel;
`and Werner Brehm
`
`13.1 Introduction 1 13.1
`132 System Components 1 13.2
`133 System Functions 1 13.7
`13.4 Communications with Other Electronic Control Units 1 13.17
`13.5 Optimization of the Drivetrain 1 13.18
`13.6 Future Developments 1 13.19
`Giossary 1 13.20
`References 1 13.20
`
`Chapter 14. Cruise Control Richard Valentine
`
`14.1 Cruise Control System 1 14.1
`14.2 Microcontroiler Requirements for Cruise Control
`14.3 Cruise Control Software 1 14.4
`14.4 Cruise Control Design 1 14.6
`145 Future Cruise Concepts 1 14.7
`Glossary 1 14.8
`Bibliography 1 14.8
`
`1 14.3
`
`12.1
`
`13.1
`
`14.1
`
`9
`
`

`
`CONTENTS
`
`Chapter 15. Braking Control
`
`Jerry L. Cage
`
`15.1 Introduction I 15.1
`15.2 Vehicle BrakingFundarnentals I 15.1
`15.3 Antilock Systems I 15.8
`15.4 FutnreVehic[e Brakingsystems I 15.14
`Glossary I 15.15
`References I 15.16
`
`Chapter 16. Traction Control Armin Czim.-zeI
`
`16.1 Introduction I 16.1
`16.2 Forces Affecting WheclTraction: Fundamental Concepts I 16.3
`16.3 ControlledVariables I 16.5
`16.4 Control Modes I 16.6
`16.5 Traction Control Components I 16.11
`16.6 Applications on Heavy CommereialVehicles I 16.13
`16.’? F11tureTren_ds
`I 16.14
`Glossary I 16.14
`Bibliography I 16.15
`
`15.1
`
`16.1
`
`Chapter 17. Suspension Control Akarsu Yahsuke
`
`17.1
`
`11.1 ShockAbsorber Control System I 17.1
`17.2 Hydropneumatic Suspension Control System I 17.4
`17.3 Electronic Leveling Control System I 17.5
`11.4 Activesuspension I 17.8
`17.5 Conclusion I 17.17
`Glossary I 17.18
`Nomenclature I 17.18
`Bibliography I 17.18
`
`Chapter 18. Steering Control Makoto Safo
`
`18.1 Variable—A.ssistSteering I 18.1
`18.2 Four-WheelSteeringSystcms (4WS)
`Glossary I 18.33
`References I 18.33
`
`I 18.15
`
`Chapter 19. Lighting, Wipers, Air ConditioningI Heating
`Richard Valentine
`
`19.1 Lighting Controls I 19.1
`I 19.9
`19.2 Windshield Wiper Control
`19.3 Air ConditionerIHea1.er Control
`I 19.15
`19.4 Miscellaneous Load Control Reference I 19.20
`19.5 Future Load Contro! Concepts I 19.25
`Glossary I 19.26
`Bibliography I 19.27
`
`18.1
`
`19.1
`
`10
`
`10
`
`

`
`Part 4 Displays and Information Systems
`
`Chapter 20. Instrument Panel Displays Ronald K. Jurgen
`
`20.1 The Evolution to Electronic Displays I 20.3
`20.2 Vacuum Fluorescent Displays
`I 20.3
`20.3 Liquid Crystal Displays a'' 20.4
`20.4 Cathode-Ray Tube Displays 1' 20.6
`20.5 He-ad—upDisplays
`I 20.6
`20.6 Electronic Analog Displays I 20.8
`20.’? Reconfigurable Displays J’ 20.9
`References I 20.9
`
`Chapter 21. Trip Computers Ronald K. Jurgen
`
`21.1 Trip Computer Basics 1' 21.1
`21.2 SpecificTrip Computer Designs I 21.2
`21.3 Conclusion I 21.4
`References I 21.6 -
`
`Chapter 22. On- and Off-Board Diagnostics Wolfgang Bremer,
`Frfeder Heintz. and Robert Huge!
`
`22.1 Why Diagnostics? I 22.1
`22.2 On-Board Diagnostics I 22.6
`22.3 Off-Board Diagnostics I 22.7
`22.4 Legislation and Standardization J’ 22.8
`22.5 Future Diagnostic Concepts I 22.15
`Glossary I 22.18
`References 1' 22.19
`
`Part 5 Safety, Convenience, Entertainment,
`and Other Systems
`
`Chapter 23. Passenger Safety and Convenience Bernhard K. Manes
`
`23.1 Passenger Safety Systems J’ 23.3
`23.2 Passenger Convenience Systems I 23.11
`Glossary I 23.13
`Bibliography I 23.13
`
`Chapter 24. Antitheft Systems Sh:'m'chiKato
`
`I 24.1
`24.1 Vehicle Theft Circumstances
`24.2 Overview of Antitheft Regulations I 24.2
`24.3 ABasicAntitheft System I 24.3
`
`CONTENTS
`
`xi
`
`20.3
`
`21.1
`
`22.1
`
`23.3
`
`24.1
`
`11
`
`11
`
`

`
`xii
`
`CONTENTS
`
`Chapter 25. Entertainment Products Tom Chrapkiewicz
`
`25.1
`
`25.1 Fundamentals of Audio Systems I 25.1
`25.2 ABrief History of Automotive Entertainment
`25.3 Conten1poraryAudio Systems I 25.5
`25.4 FutureTrends I 25.12
`Glossary I 25.17
`References I 25.18
`
`I 25.4
`
`
`
`Chapter 26. Multiplex Wiring Systems Fred Miesterfeld 26.1
`
`26.1 Vehicle Multiplexing I 26.1
`26.2 EncodingTecl1niques I 26.9
`26.3 Protocols 1 26.23
`26.4 Summary and Conclusions I 26.53
`Glossary I 26.56
`References I 26.64
`
`Part 6 Electromagnetic Interference and Compatibility
`
`Chapter 27. Electromagnetic Standards and Interference
`
`James E Muccioli 27.3
`
`27.1 SAE Automotive EMC Standards I 27.3
`272 IEEE Standards Related to EMC I 27.11
`27.3 The Electromagnetic Environment of an Automobile Electronic System I 27.13
`Bibliography I 27.18
`'
`
`
`
`Chapter 28. Electromagnetic Compatibility James I’. Muccioli 28.1
`
`28.] Noise Propagation Modes I 28.1
`28.2 Cabling I 28.2
`28.3 Components I 28.4
`28.4 Printed Circuit Board EMC Checklist
`
`I 28.9
`
`28.5 Integrated Circuit Decoupln-1g—A Key Automotive EMI Concern I 28.10
`28.6 IC Process Size Affects EMC I 28.14
`Bibliography I 28.19
`
`Part '1 Emerging Technologies
`
`Chapter 29. Navigation Aids and Intelligent Vehicle-Highway Systems Robert 1..
`French
`
`293
`
`29.1 Background I 29.3
`I 29.4
`29.2 Automobile Navigation Technologies
`29.3 Examples of Navigation Systems I 29.10
`29.4 Other IVHS Systems and Services I 29.15
`References I 29.18
`
`12
`
`12
`
`

`
`Chapter 30. Electric and Hybrid Vehicles George G. Karady, Tracy Blake,
`Raymond S. Hobbs. and Donald B. Karner
`
`30.1
`
`CONTENTS
`
`xiii
`
`30.1 Introduction I 30.1
`30.2 System Description I 30.5
`30.3 Charger and Protectior1Systen1 I 30.6
`30.4 Motor Drive System I 30.8
`30.5 Battery I 30.17
`30.6 Vehicle Control and Auxiliary Systems I 30.19
`30.? Infrastructure 2‘ 30.21
`30.8 Hybrid Vehicles I 30.23
`Glossary I 30.24
`References I 3025
`
`Chapter 31. Noise Canceilation Systems
`
`Jeffrey N. Dem-mberg
`
`31.1 Noise Sources I 31.1
`31.2 Applications 3 31.5
`Glossary I 31.10
`Bibliography I 31.10
`
`Chapter 32. Future Vehicle Electronics Randy Frank and Salim Momin
`
`31.1
`
`32.1
`
`32.1 Retrospective J‘ 32.1
`32.2 [C Technology I’ 32.1
`32.3 Other Semiconductor Technologies 1 32.5
`32.4 Enabling the Future I _ 32.1}
`32.5 Impact on Future Automotive Electronics I 32.15
`32.6 Conclusions I 32.20
`Glossary I 32.21
`Bibliography I 3223
`
`Index I 1.1
`
`13
`
`13
`
`

`
`14
`
`14
`
`

`
`
`
`CONTRIBUTORS
`
`Robert E. Bicking Honeywell, Micro Switch Division (CHAP. 4)
`
`Tracy Blake Arizona State University (CHAR 30)
`
`David S. Boehmer
`
`Intel Corporation (CHAR 11)
`
`Werner Brehm Robert Bosch GmbH (CHAR 13)
`
`Wolfgang Bremar Robert Bosch GmbH (CHAP. 22)
`
`Wollgang Bullmer Robert Bosch GmbH (CHAP. 13)
`
`Jerry L. Cage Allied Signal, Inc. (CI-IAP. 15)
`Tom Chrapkiewicz Philips Semic0t1dttCi0t‘{CHAP. 25)
`
`Armin Czinczel Robert Bosch GmbH (CI-LAP. 16)
`
`Jeffrey N. Denanberg Noise Cancellation Technologies, Inc. (CHAP. 31)
`
`William C. Dunn Motorola Semiconductor Products (CRAP. 7)
`Randy Frank Motorola Semiconductor Products (CHAPS. 2, 5, 32)
`
`Robert L. French R. L French &Associates (Cl-IAP. 29)
`
`Frieder Heintz Robert Bosch G'mbH (CHAR 22)
`
`Gary C. Hirschlieb Robert Bosch GmbH (CHAR 12)
`
`Raymond S. Hobbs Arizona Pttbiic Service Con1pony(CI-IAP.3U)
`
`Gerhard Hfitzel Robert Bosch GmbH (amp. 6)
`
`Robert Hugel Robert Bosch GmbH (CH.-M‘. 22)
`
`Ronald K. Jurgen Editor (CHAPS. 1, 2|], 21)
`
`George G. Karady Arizona State Univeristy (CHAP. 30)
`
`Donald B. Karnar Eiectric TronsportationAppiioation((:11A1=.3{])
`
`Shinichi Kate Nissan Motor Co., Ltd. (CHAP. 24}
`
`Bernhard K. Mattes Robert Bosch Gmbh’ {CHAR 23)
`
`Fred Miesterfeld Chrysler Corporation (CI-IAP. 26)
`
`Salim Momin Motorola Semiconductor Products (CHAP. 32)
`
`James P. Muccioli
`
`JASTECH (CHAPS. 27,28)
`
`Klaus Mfiller Robert Bosch GrnbH (CHAP. 10)
`Kurt Neuffer Robert Bosch GmbH (CI-IAP. 13)
`
`Harald Neumann Robert Bosch Gn-:bH (CH.-\P'. 6)
`
`Paul Nickson Analog Devices, Inc. (cl-1AP.3)
`
`Johann Riegel Robert Bosch GrnbH (CHAR 6)
`
`15
`
`15
`
`

`
`xvi
`
`CONTRIBUTORS
`
`Makoto Sato Honda R&D C9,, Ltd. (CHAP. 38)
`
`Gottfried Schiller Robert Bosch GmbH (CHAIB12)
`
`Shari Stottlar Robert Bosch GmbH (CRAP. 12)
`
`Richard Valentine Mororofa Inc. (CHAPS. 14, 19}
`
`Helmut Way! Robert Bosch GmbH {Cl-LAP. 6)
`
`Hans-Martin Wiedenmann Robert Bosch GmbH (CHAR 6)
`
`William G. Wolher Cummins Electronics Co, Inc. (CHAPS. 8, 9}
`
`Akatsu Yohsuke Nissan Motor Co., Ltd. [CHAR 17)
`
`16
`
`16
`
`

`
`PREFACE
`
`Automotive electronics as we know it today encompasses a wide variety of devices and sys-
`tems. Key to them all, and those yet to come, is the ability to sense and measure accurately
`automotive parameters. Equally important at the output is the ability to initiate control
`actions accurately in response to cornrhands. In other words, sensors and actuators are the
`heart of any automotive electronics application. That is why they have been placed first in this
`handbook where they are described in technical depth. In other chapters, application—specific
`discussions of sensors and actuators can be found.
`
`The importance of sensors and actuators cannot be overernphasized.’l'he future growth of
`automotive electronics is arguably more dependent on sufficiently accurate and low-cost sen-
`sors and actuators than on computers, controls, displays, and other technologies. Yet it is those
`nonsensor, nonactuator technologies that are to many engineers the more “glamorous” and
`exciting areas of automotive electronics.
`In the section on control systems, a key in—depth chapter deals with automotive microcor1—
`trollers.Witl1out them, ail of the controls described in the chapters that follow in that see-
`tion——engine, transmission, cruise, braking, traction, suspension, steering, lighting, windshield
`wipers, air conditionerlheater—would not be possible. Those controls, of course, are key to car
`operation and they have made cars over the years more drivable, safe, and reliable.
`Displays, trip computers, and on— and off—board diagnostics are described in another sec-
`tion, as are systems for passenger safety and convenience, antitheft, entertainment, and multi-
`plex wiring. Displays and trip computers enable the driver to readily obtain valuable
`information about the car’s operation and anticipated trip time. On- and off-board diagnostics
`have of necessity become highly sophisticated to keep up with highiy sophisticated electronic
`controls. Passenger safety and convenience items and antitheft devices add much to the feel-
`ing of security and pleasure in owning an automobile. Entertainment products are what got
`automotive electronics started and they continue to be in high demand by car buyers. And
`multiplex wiring, off to a modest start in production cars, holds great promise for the future in
`reducing the cumbersome wiring harnesses presently used.
`The section on electromagnetic interference and compatibility emphasizes that interfer-
`ence from a variety of sources, if not carefully taken into account early on, can raise havoc
`with what otherwise would be elegant automotive electronic designs. And automotive systems
`themselves, if not properly designed, can cause interference both inside and outside the auto-
`mobile.
`In the final section on emerging technologies, some key newer areas are presented:
`
`I Navigation aids and intelligent vehicle-highway systems are of high interest worldwide
`since they hold promise to alieviate many of vehicle-caused problems and frustrations in
`our society.
`
`I While it may be argued that electric vehicles are not an emerging technology, since they
`have been around for many years, it certainly is true that they have yet to come into their
`own in any really meaningful way.
`
`I Electronic noise cancellation is getting increasing attention from automobile designers
`seeking an edge over their competitors.
`
`17
`
`17
`
`

`
`xviii
`
`PREFACE
`
`The final chapter on future vehicle electronics is an umbrella discussion that runs the
`gamut of trends in future automotive electronics hardware and software. It identifies poten-
`tial technology developments and trends for future systems.
`Nearly every chapter contains its own glossary of terms. This approach, rather than one
`overall unified glossary, has the advantage of allowing terms to be defined in a more applica-
`tion-specific n1anner——in the context of the subject of each chapter. It should also be noted
`that there has been no attempt in this handbook to cover, except peripherally, purely mechan-
`ical and electrical devices and systems To do so would have restricted the number of pages
`available for automotive electronics discussions.
`
`Finally, the editor would like to thank all contributors to the handbook and particularly
`two individuals: Otto Holzinger of Robert Bosch Grub!-I in Stuttgart, Germany and Randy
`Frank of Motorola Semiconductor Products in Phoenix, Arizona. Holzinger organized the
`many contributions to this handbook from his company. Frank, in addition to contributing
`two chapters himself and cocontributing a third, organized the other contributions from
`Motorola. Without their help, this handbook would not have been possible.
`
`Ronald K. Jurgen
`
`18
`
`18
`
`

`
`CHAPTER 11
`
`AUTOMOTIVE
`MICROCONTROLLERS
`
`David S. Boehmer
`Senior Applications Engineer
`Intel Corporation
`
`A rnicrocontroller can be found at the heart of almost any automotive electronic control mod-
`ule or ECU in production today. Automotive systems such as antilock braking control (ABS),
`engine control, navigation, and vehicle dynamics all incorporate at least one microcontroller
`within their ECU to perform necessary control functions. Understanding the various features
`and offerings of microcontrollers that are available on the market today is important when
`making a selection for an application. This chapter is intended to provide a look at various
`microcontroller features and provide some insight into their characteristics from an automo-
`tive application point of view.
`
`1' 1. 1 MICROCONTROLLER ARCHITECTURE AND PERFORMANCE
`CHARACTERISTICS
`
`A microcontroller can essentially be thought of as a single-chip computer system and is often
`referred to as a sing1e—chip microcomputer. It detects and processes input signals, and
`responds by asserting output signals to the rest of the ECU. Fabricated upon this highly inte-
`grated, single piece of silicon are all of the features necessary to perform embedded control
`functions. Microcontrollers are fabricated by many manufacturers and are offered in just
`about any imaginable mix of memory, HO, and peripheral sets. The user customizes the oper-
`ation of the microcontroller by programming it with his or her own unique program. The pro-
`gram configures the microcontroller to detect external events, manipulate the collected data,
`and respond with appropriate output. The user’s program is commonly referred to as code
`and typically resides on-chip in either ROM or EPROM. In some cases where an excessive
`amount of code space is required, memory may exist off—chip on a separate piece of silicon.
`After power-up, a microcontroller executes the user’s code and performs the desired embed-
`ded control function.
`
`Microcontrollers differ from microprocessors in several ways. Microcontrollers can be
`thought of as a complete microcomputer on a chip that integrates a CPU with memory and
`various peripherals such as analog-to-digital converters (AID), serial communication units
`(SIO, SSIO), high~speed input and output units (HSIO, EPA, PWM), timerfcounter units, and
`
`19
`
`

`
`1 1 .4
`
`CONTROL SYSTEMS
`
`standard low—speed inputloutput ports (LSIO). Microcontrollers are designed to be embed-
`ded within event-driven control applications and generally have all necessary peripherals
`integrated onto the same piece of silicon. Microcontrollers are utilized in applications ranging
`from automotive ABS to household appliances in which the mit:rocontroller’s function is pre-
`defined and limited user interface is required.
`Microprocessors, on the other hand, typically require external peripheral devices to per-
`form their intended function and are not suited to be utilized in single-chip designs Micro-
`processors basically consist of a CPU with register arrays and interrupt handlers Peripherals
`such asA.I'D and HSIO are rarely integrated onto microprocessor silicon. Microprocessors are
`designed to process large quantities of data and have the capability to handle large amounts
`of external memory. Although microprocessors are typically utilized in applications which are
`much more human-interface and U0 intensive such as personal computers and office work-
`stations, they are beginning to find their way into embedded applications.
`Choosing a microcontroller for an application is a process that takes careful investigation
`and thought. Items such as memory size, frequency, bus size, U0 requirements, and tempera-
`ture range are all basic requirements that must be considered when choosing a microcon-
`troller. The microcontroller family must possess the performance capability necessary to
`successfully accomplish the intended task. The family should also provide a memory, I10, and
`frequency growth path that allows easy upgradability to meet market demands. Additionally,
`the microcontroller must meet the application’s thermal requirements in order to guarantee
`functionality over the intended operating temperature range. Items such as these must all be
`considered when choosing a microcontroller for an automotive application.
`
`'_11.1.1 Block Diagram
`Usually the first item a designer will see when opening a microcontroller data book or data
`sheet is a block diagram. A block diagram provides a high—level pictorial representation of a
`microcontroller and depicts the various peripherals, U0, and memory functions the micro-
`controller has to offer. The block diagram gives the designer a quick indication if the particu-
`lar microcontroller will meet the basic memory, U0, and peripheral needs of their application.
`Figure 11.1 shows a block diagram for a state-of—the-art microcontroller. It depicts 32 Kbytes
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`

`
`AUTOMOTIVE MICROCONTROLLERS
`
`1 1 .5
`
`of EPROM, 1 Kbyte of register RAM, 6 I10 ports, an A-to-D converter, 2 timers, high-speed
`input.-‘output (U0) channels, as well as many other peripherals. These features may be “exces-
`sive” to a designer looking for a rnicrocontroller to implement in an automotive trip-com-
`puter application but would be excellently suited for automotive ABS."traction control or
`engine control.
`
`11.1.2 Pin-Out Diagram
`
`A rnicrocontroller’s pin-out diagram is used to specify the functions assigned to pins relative to
`their position on a given package.An example pin-out diagram is shown in Fig. 11.2. Note that
`most pins have multiple functions assigned to them. Pins that can support more than one func-
`tion are referred to as multifunction pins The default function for multifunction pins is nor-
`mally that of low-speed input and output (discussed later in this chapter). If the user should
`wish to select the secondary or special function associated with the pin, he or she can do so by
`writing to the appropriate special function register. There are some exceptions. A good exam-
`ple is pins used for interfacing to external memory. If the device is instructed to power-up exe-
`cuting from external memory as opposed to on-chip memory, the address data bus and
`associated control pins will revert to their special function as opposed to low—speed IEO.
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`
`21
`
`21
`
`

`
`11.6
`
`CONTROL SYSTEMS
`
`11.1.3 Central Processing Unit
`
`The central processing unit or CPU can be thought of as the brain of a rnicrocontroller. The
`CPU is the circuitry within a microcontroller where instructions are executed and decisions
`are made. Mathematical calculations, data processing, and control signal generation all take
`place within the CPU. Major components of the CPU include the arithmetic logic unit (ALU),
`register file, instruction register, and a microcode engine. The CPU is connected to the bus
`controller and other peripherals via a bidirectional data bus.
`Microcontrollers are, for the most part, digital devices As digital devices, microcoritrollers
`utilize a binary numbering system with a base of 2. Binary data digits or bits are expressed as
`either a logic “1” (boolean value of true) or a logic “0” (boolean value of false). In a 5~V sys-
`tem, a logic “1" may be simply defined as a +5-V state and a logic “U" may be defined as a (}-V
`state. A bit is a single memory or register location that can contain either a logic “1” or a logic
`“O" state. Bits of data can be arranged as a nibble (4 bits of data), a byte (8 bits of data), or as
`a word (16 bits of data). It should also be noted that,in some instances, a word may be defined
`as the data width that a given microcontroller can recognize at a time, be it 8 bits or 16 bits.
`For purposes of this chapter, we will refer to a word as being 16 bits. Data can also be
`expressed as a double word which is an unsigned 32—bit variable with a value between D and
`4,294,967,295. Most architectures support this data only for shifts, dividends of a 32—by-16
`divide, or for the product of a 16-by-16 multiply.
`The most common way of referring to a microcontroller is by the width of its CPU. This
`indicates the width of data that the CPU can process at a time. A microcontroller with a CPU
`that can process 8 bits of data at a time is referred to as an 8-bit microcontroller.A n1icrocon—
`troller with a CPU that can process 16 bits of data at a time is referred to as a 16-bit micro~
`controller. With this in mind, it is easy to see why 16-bit rnicrocontrollers offer higher
`performance than their 8-bit counterparts. Figure 11.3 illustrates a typical 16-bit CPU dia-
`
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`
`22
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`22
`
`

`
`Al.JTOM0'I'IV'E MICROCONTROLLERS
`
`11.?
`
`gram. The microcode engine controls the CPU. Instructions to the CPU are taken from the
`instruction queue and temporarily stored in the instruction register. This queue is often
`referred to as a prefetch queue and it decreases execution time by staging instructions to be
`executed. The microcode engine then decodes the instructions and generates the correct
`sequence of events to have the ALU perform the desired function(s).
`
`Arithmetic Logic Unit. The ALU is the portion of the CPU that performs most mathemat-
`ical and logic operations. After an instruction is decoded by the microcode engine, the data -
`specified by the instruction is loaded into the ALU for processing. The ALU then processes
`the data as specified by the instruction.
`
`Register File. The register file consists of memory locations that are used as temporary stor-
`age locations while the user’s code is executing. The register file is implemented as RAM and
`consists of both RAM memory locations and special function registers (SFRS). RAM mem-
`ory locations are used as temporary data storage during execution of the user’s code. After
`power-up, RAM memory locations default to a logic “0" and data in SFR locations contain
`default values as specified by the microcontroller manufacturer.
`
`SFRs allow the user to configure and monitor various periph-
`Special Function Registers.
`erals and functions of the microcontroller. By writing specific data to an SFR, the users can
`configure the microcontroller