Te chnol i399 for
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`Electric and
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`thrid Vehicles
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`\‘u
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`OOIIIIIII‘D-IIIQIIIIIICO0.00Q.QOOIII
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`L.-.:i- bl; ‘L-Lfl
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`Iooooool
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`Ila ulster for
`Emcrucmy
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`echn l gy for
`lec rica d ybrid
`Vehicles
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`SP-1331
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`
`
`GLOBAL MOBILITY DATABASE
`All SAE papers, standards, and selected
`books are abstracted and indexed in the
`Global Mobility Database
`
`Published by:
`Society of Automotive Engineers, Inc.
`400 Commonwealth Drive
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`Page 2 of 151
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`FORD 1224
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`Permission to photocopy for internal or personal use of specific clients, is granted by SAE
`for libraries and other users registered with the Copyright Clearance Center (CCC), pro—
`vided that the base fee of $7.00 per article is paid directly to C00, 222 Rosewood Drive,
`Danvers, MA 01923. Special requests should be addressed to the SAE Publications
`Group. O-7680-O151-X/98$7.00.
`
`Any part of this publication authored solely by one or
`more US. Government employees in the course of their
`employment is considered to be in the public domain,
`and is not subject to this copyright.
`
`No part of this publication may be reproduced in any form, in an electronic retrieval sys-
`tem or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the publisher.
`
`ISBN 0-7680-0151-X
`SA E/S P-98/1331
`
`Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 97-81283
`Copyright © 1998 Society of Automotive Engineers, lnc.
`
`Positions and opinions advanced in this
`paper are those of the author(s) and not
`necessarily those of SAE. The author is
`solely responsible for the content of the
`paper. A process is available by which
`the discussions will be printed with the
`paper if
`is is published in SAE Transac-
`tions. For permission to publish this paper
`in full or in part, contact the SAE Publica-
`
`Persons wishing to submit papers to be
`considered for presentation or publication
`through SAE should send the manuscript
`or a 300 word abstract
`to: Secretary,
`Engineering Meetings Board, SAE.
`
`Printed in USA
`
`Page 3 of 151
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`FORD 1224
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`PREFACE
`
`This Special Publication, Technology for Electric and Hybrid Vehicles (SP-1331),
`collection of papers from the “Electric Vehicle Technology” and “Engines and Fuel
`Technology for Hybrid Vehicles” sessions of the 1998 SAE international Congress
`and Exposition.
`
`is a
`
`Hybrid vehicles are now a reality in Japan, and they could soon be coming to the
`United States. The heart of the Toyota Prius hybrid vehicle is its fuel—efficient engine
`and unique transmission, coupled with a limited-range battery. The hybrid vehicle’s
`advantage is its ability to run the engine at its "sweet spot" to minimize emissions of
`criteria pollutants or minimize energy consumption and 002 production, depending
`on the control strategy. The key technical measure of success for a hybrid vehicle is
`a well designed engine—-electrical-battery system that is matched to the load demand.
`
`The papers from the "Engines and Fuel Technology for Hybrid Vehicles" session
`focus on leading-edge engine design, engine management, and fuel strategies for low
`emission, high mileage hybrid cars and commercial vehicles.
`
`The papers from the “Electric Vehicle Technology” session focus on hybrid vehicle
`control technology, energy storage, and management for hybrid vehicles and
`simulation development.
`
`Bradford Bates
`
`Ford Research Laboratory
`
`Frank Stodolsksy
`Argonne National Laboratory
`
`Session Organizers
`
`Page 4 of 151
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`980890
`
`980891
`
`981122
`
`981124
`
`981125
`
`981126
`
`981127
`
`981128
`
`TABLE OF CONTENTS
`
`An Algorithm of Optimum Torque Control for Hybrid Vehicle .........
`Yoshishige Ohyama
`Hitachi Car Engineering Co., Ltd.
`
`....... 1
`
`Energy Regeneration of Heavy Duty Diesel Powered
`Vehicles ..........................................................................................
`
`..... 11
`
`Matsuo Odaka and Noriyuki Koike
`Ministry of Transport, Japan
`Yoshito Hijikata and Toshihide Miyajima
`Hino Motors, Ltd.
`
`Development of the Hybrid/Battery ECU for the Toyota
`Hybrid System .................................................................................
`Akira Nagasaka, Mitsuhiro Nada, Hidetsugu Hamada, Shu Hiramatsu,
`and Yoshiaki Kikuchi
`
`..... 19
`
`Toyota Motor Corporation
`Hidetoshi Kato
`
`Denso Corporation
`
`Hybrid Power Unit Development for FIAT MULTIPLA Vehicle ...........
`Caraceni and G. Cipolla
`ELASIS ScPA — Motori
`R. Barbiero
`FIAT AUTO —VAM|A
`
`..... 29
`
`The Development of a Simulation Software Tool for Evaluating
`Advanced Powertrain Solutions and New Technology Vehicles .......
`Jaimie Swann and Andy Green
`Motor Industry Research Association (MIRA)
`
`..... 37
`
`Styling for a Small Electric City Car.................................................
`T. G. Chondros, S. D. Panteliou, S. Pipano, and D. Vergos,
`P. A. Dimarogonas and D. V. Spanos
`University of Patras, Greece
`A.D. Dimarogonas
`
`Washington University in St. Louis, Mo.
`
`Patents and Alternatively Powered Vehicles ....................................
`Rob Adams
`Derwent information
`
`An Electric Vehicle with Racing Speeds ..........................................
`Edward Heil, Colin Jordan, Karim J. Nasr and Keith M. Plagens,
`Massoud Tavakoli, Mark Thompson and Jeffrey T. Wolak
`GMi Engineering & Management institute
`
`..... 43
`
`..... 53
`
`..... 59
`
`Page 5 of 151
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`981129
`
`981130
`
`981132
`
`Battery State Control Techniques for Charge Sustaining
`Applications ..............................................................................
`Herman L.N. Wiegman
`University of Wisconsin ~ Madison
`A. J. A. Vandenput
`Technical University of Eindhoven
`
`.......... 65
`
`Load Leveling Device Selection for Hybrid Electric Vehicles
`Paul B. Koeneman and Daniel A. McAdams
`
`.......... 77
`
`The University of Texas at Austin
`
`Simulation of Hybrid Electric Vehicles with Emphasis
`on Fuel Economy Estimation ...................................................
`Erbis L. Biscarri and M. A. Tamor
`
`.......... 85
`
`Ford Motor Company
`Syed Murtuza
`University of Michigan
`
`981133
`
`Validation of ADVlSOR as a Simulation Tool for a Series Hybrid
`' Electric Vehicle ..........................................................................
`
`.......... 95
`
`Randall D. Senger, Matthew A. Merkle and and Douglas J. Nelson
`Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University
`
`981135
`
`The Electric Automobile ............................................................
`
`........ 117
`
`E. Larrodé, L. Castején, and A. Miravete and J. Cuartero
`University of Zaragoza
`
`981187
`
`981123
`
`The Capstone MicroTurbineTlVl as a Hybrid Vehicle
`Energy Source ...........................................................................
`Howard Longee
`Capstone Turbine Corporation
`
`The Mercedes-Benz C-Class Series Hybrid ................................
`Joerg O. Abthoff, Peter Antony, and Michael Kramer and Jakob Seiler
`Daimler-Benz AG
`
`...... 127
`
`........ 133
`
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`An Algorithm of Optimum Torque Control for Hybrid Vehicle
`
`980890
`
`Copyright © 1998 Society of Automotive Engineers, Inc.
`
`Yoshishige Ohyama
`Hitachi Car Engineering Co., Ltd.
`
`of the future [1]. The internal combustion engine will
`
`continue to dominate the world passenger-vehicle
`
`An algorithm for a fuel efficient hybrid drivetrain
`
`market for at least the next 25 years [5]. The engine
`
`system that
`
`can attain
`
`fewer
`
`exhaust
`
`will require better efficiency and lowered emissions
`
`emissions and higher fuel economy was investigated.
`
`output which means that fuels will similarly require
`
`The system integrates a lean burn engine with high
`
`refinement, so that the engines can eventually be
`
`supercharging, an exhaust gas recycle system, an
`
`refined to the point
`
`that
`
`they produce almost no
`
`electric machine
`
`for
`
`power
`
`assist,
`
`and
`
`an
`
`harmful emissions. internal combustion engines using
`
`electronically controlled gear transmission. Smooth
`
`synthetic fuel made of natural gas, similar to light
`
`the power source,
`
`the air—fuel
`
`ratio,
`
`quality gasoline, seem to be the most promising
`
`pressure ratio, exhaust gas ratio as a function of the
`
`target torque were analyzed. The estimation of air
`
`advancement in the near future [5].
`
`To reduce the system's cost and increase its
`
`mass in cylinder by using an air flow meter was
`
`efficiency, the engine is driven at the lowest possible
`
`investegated to control
`
`the air—fuel
`
`ratio precisely
`
`speed at the maximum gear ratio of the transmission
`
`during transients.
`
`1.|NTRODUCT|ON
`
`at low vehicle speed. Thus, the capacity of the electric
`
`machine and battery can be kept small. Systems that
`
`combine an integrated interactive hybrid drivetrain
`
`control system, such as to give lean burn, with an
`
`Consumers are inceasing their demands
`
`for
`
`electronically controlled transmission, and electric
`
`vehicles that are more fuel efficient, environmentally
`
`machine control systems mentioned above, have
`
`friendly, and affordable. Some form of electric and
`
`been
`
`partially
`
`examined
`
`[1].
`
`The
`
`optimum
`
`hybrid vehicle is increasingly being viewed as one
`answer to user demands. Thus,
`introduction of a
`
`combination of two power sources—a hybrid drivetrain
`
`with an internal combustion engine and a small
`
`future car system integrating an internal combustion
`
`electric machine-would make it possible to get
`
`engine and an electric machine seems inevitable [1].
`
`significant
`
`reductions
`
`in
`
`fuel
`
`consumption
`
`and
`
`While electric vehicles and hybrid-electric vehicles
`
`exhaust emissions. The control system without the
`
`are still dominant [2-4], conventional hybrid systems,
`
`electric machine has been already investigated [6], as
`
`with their complicated energy management and
`
`well as the control system with the electric machine
`
`storage systems, may not be the final answer to the
`
`and a continuously variable transmission [7]. A control
`
`high-mileage,
`
`low—emissions passenger
`
`system with the electric machine and simple gear
`
`Page 7 of 151
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`that combines the engine drivetrain control system
`
`2.2 Basic control technique
`
`and electric machine systems is investegated.
`
`The aim of the control system is to obtain a
`
`2. SYSTEM CONCEPT
`
`2.1 Outline
`
`ldealized,
`
`the concept would include an engine
`
`smooth drivetrain force change relative to the torque
`
`set point, which is given by the accelerator position,
`
`over a wide range of vehicle speeds and loads. The
`
`system should be able to cope with large changes in
`engine load and drivetrain switches from the electric
`
`and electric machine drivetrain, such as in Figure 1
`
`machine to the engine and from the engine to the
`
`is usually
`1. The electric machine
`and Table
`functioned as an electric motor. On one hand this
`
`provides fuel saving and lower exhaust emissions
`
`while using the engine system such as direct injection
`
`stratified charge sytem [10], or
`
`rapid combustion
`
`system with high dispersed fuel—air mixture [11] and
`
`high supercharging, on the other hand,
`
`it allows for
`
`short-distance driving and low load driving with the
`
`electric machine
`
`such
`
`as
`
`electrically
`
`exited
`
`synchronous drive with power inverter. The engine
`
`brake, wheel brake, and regeneration by the electric
`
`machine are controlled optimally during deceleration
`
`and downhill travel. A transmission with electronically
`controlled synchromesh gear sets is used for this
`purpose.
`
`Drivetrain
`
`Electric
`machine
`
`Fig. 1 Hybrid drivetrain
`
`Table 1 Hybrid drivetrain
`
`(1) Engine
`(a) Rapid combustion with high dispersed mixture
`(b) High supercharging
`—>
`lower nitrogen oxides emissions
`
`(2) Electric machine
`Electrically exited synchronous drive
`with power
`inverter
`—>
`short distance and low load driving
`
`electric machine without increasing nitrogen oxides
`
`emissions, and without degrading driveability.
`
`TI Target
`
`torque
`
`Torque
`set point
`
`Gear ratio
`R
`
`
`B1
`
`Vehicle
`speed
`
`
`
`_
`
`uel mass
`
`>Air mass
`A
`
`__>Electric
`current
`I
`
`Fig.
`
`2
`
`Control system
`
`As shown in Figure 2, the target drivetrain torque T
`
`is calculated as a function of the torque set point and
`
`the vehicle speed in block1 (Bi). The upper and lower
`
`limits of the equivalent gear ratio Rh and RI are
`
`calculated as a function of the vehicle speed in B2.
`The equivalent gear ratio R, fuel mass F, and air
`
`mass A are simultaneously calculated as a function of
`
`the target torque T,
`
`taking the limit Rh and RI
`
`in
`
`consideration in B3. Some control strategies such as
`
`the dynamic compensation described in section 3.7
`are executed in B4. Fuel mass F is delivered with an
`
`electronically controlled fuel
`
`injector as
`
`shown
`
`elsewhere [10]. Fuel
`
`is
`
`injected directly into the
`
`cylinders. Therefore, the system is free from transient
`
`fuel compensation which is commonly in port injection
`systems [8]. The air mass A is controlled with an
`
`electronically controlled throttle valve and air bypass
`
`Page 8 of 151
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`

`by the air mass which is generally measured by the
`
`The air mass and fuel mass of the engine are
`
`air flow meter,
`
`to control the air-fuel ratio precisely
`'
`Under stratified charge conditions, the accelerator
`
`changed frequently as the target torque changes. The
`
`air-fuel ratio must be controlled during the transient
`
`conditions precisely to reduce exhaust emissions and
`
`pedal opening angle, rather than the intake manifold
`
`improve driveability.
`
`It was determined that
`
`the
`
`the most
`
`important
`
`information for
`
`volumetric efficiency during and immediately following
`
`fuel. But,
`injected
`of
`determining the quantity
`information about the amount of intake air has also
`
`a transient, at any engine temperature, was not equal
`
`to the staedy-state value. The transient volumetric
`
`importance in actual engine operation to control the
`
`efficiency was found to be as large as 10% different
`
`air-fuel ratio A/F precisely.
`
`from the steady-state value. The volumetric efficiency
`
`The gear ratio R is controlled with an electronically
`
`is dependent upon instantaneous cylinder wall and
`
`transmission
`
`[13-16]. The
`
`command
`
`valve temperature. To control the the air-fuel ratio A/F
`
`electronics for an electrically excited synchronous
`
`during transients accurately,
`
`the engine controller
`
`drive can be easily accomplishedln the case of a
`
`needs precise predictions or measurements of the
`
`synchronous drive,
`
`an inverter provides optimal
`
`amount of intake air, and the amount of fuel injected
`
`control of rotor excitation, stator current amplitude l,
`
`that will go directly in—cylinder [12].
`
`and stator current phase. A power
`
`inverter with
`
`The intake system of the engine is equipped with a
`
`insulated gate bipolar
`
`transistors transforms the
`
`compressor for supercharging and an exhaust gas
`
`battery voltage into the rotating voltage system for the
`
`recycle system, as shown in Figure 3. Wt, Wc, Wb,
`
`motor driving of the electric machine. An additional
`
`Wh, Wr, and We are the air or gas mass flow rate at
`
`chopper controls the DC current for the rotor. Then,
`
`the upstream throttle valve, at
`
`the outlet of
`
`the
`
`the drivetrain output torque is obtained, which is equal
`
`compressor, at the bypass valve, at the downstream
`
`to the target torque T if there are neither calculation
`nor control errors.
`
`2.3 Air-fuel ratio control
`
`throttle valve, at the exhaust gas recycle valve, and at
`
`the intake port of
`
`the engine,
`
`respectively.
`
`In
`
`conventional engine control systems, the air flow into
`
`the cylinders should be predicted based on the
`
`As the target torque T increases, the drivetrain
`
`movement of the throttle plate [12]. The air intake
`
`switched from the "electric machine to the engine. The
`
`process is modeled through the manifold abusolute
`
`fuel mass F, air mass A of the engine and the electric
`
`pressure observer model. The observer is based on
`
`current I are changed stepwise.
`
`the estimated throttle opening [12]. With stratified
`
`Bypass valve
`
`Air flow meter
`
`
`Engine
`
`
`
`Intake manifold
`l
`
`
`
`\ Intercooler
` Compressor
`
`Throttle valve
`
`Throttle valve
`Exhaust gas
`
`Page 9 of 151
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`

`

`Calculation conditions
`
`Table 2
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`Type
`
`Cylinder volume per cylinder
`
`4-stroke 4 cylinder
`
`4x101
`
`m3
`
`Maximum air mass per cylinder at atmospheric pressure A0
`
`4.8)<10"l
`
`Maximum exhaust gas recycle ratio
`
`Maximum exhaust recycle mass per cylinder GO
`
`Sum of A0 and GO
`
`GvO
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`Maximum fuel mass per cylinder at atmospheric pressure F0 4.8X10‘5
`
`
`
`
`
`Torque T
`
`
`
`Maximum air—fuel ratio
`
`Atmospheric pressure
`
`Maximum pressure ratio of compressor
`
`Cylinder volume per cylinder
`
`Thermal efficiency of engine
`nut
`tower of electric machine
`Maximum out
`
`
`
`
`
` 9.8><10‘
`
` l. 92X106XF—19. 2
`
`
`4X10‘4
`m3
`
`
`30 %
`
`10.5 kW
`
`
`
`Nm
`
`charge engines, nearly unthrottled operation is
`realized. Under these conditions, the estimation of the
`
`air flow based on movement of the throttle plate is not
`
`drivetrain switches from the electric machine to the
`
`engine. The switching is carried out by simultaneously
`decreasing the power of the electric machine and
`
`accurate due to the small pressure differential
`
`increasing the engine power. At T=50 Nm in Figure 4,
`
`accross the throttle plate. Therefore, the model based
`
`the power source is switched from the electric
`
`on the air flow meter was investigated in this paper.
`
`machine to the engine. The fuel mass F, air mass A
`
`3. ANALYSIS
`
`-.3_1 Simulation conditions
`
`A 4 cylinder, 4-stroke engine with a cylinder
`volume of 4 X1044 m3 was used for testing. The
`
`and the exhaust
`
`recylce mass G 'are increased
`
`stepwise simultaneously to keep the air-fuel ratio 15
`
`and the EGR ratio 40 %. As the target torque T
`
`the air
`the supercharger starts,
`increases further,
`mass A is increased more than A0, and the EGR
`
`mass is also increased. At T=162 Nm, the air mass A
`
`engine was
`
`equipped with a direct injection stratified
`
`and the EGR mass G becomes doubled,
`
`charge system [1 O], a supercharger and an exhaust
`
`gas recycle (EGR) system. The air-fuel ratio A/F was
`set between 11 and 40. The maximum ratio of the
`
`EGR was 40 %. The maximum pressure ratio of the
`
`superchager was 2. The air mass A was controlled by
`
`opening and closing of the throttle valve or the bypass
`
`valve in Figure 3. The relevant gear ratios from 1st-
`
`5th for a stepped transmission were 3.5, 2.0, 1.3, 1.0
`
`and 0.73, respectively. Fuel mass F was controlled
`
`with electronically controlled fuel
`
`injectors. Table 2
`
`shows the calculation conditions. The output power of
`
`the electric machine was 10.5 kW, and the torque
`
`,_..,_..,_..,_..
`
`GOOD
`
`Ombmool—Arogmoom
`
`
`
`A/F/lOG/Go
`
`Ale
`
`F/Fo
`
`0
`
`l
`
`T/ 100
`
`2
`Nm
`
`3
`
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`FORD 1224
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`

`

`limited by the pressure ratio of
`
`the
`
`the EGR mass G is
`supercharger. At T=243 Nm,
`decreased and the air mass A is doubled. When the
`
`torque increases further, A/F becomes lower
`
`than 15, and the air mass must be controlled by using
`
`the throttle valve and the bypass valve.
`
`3.3 Lean burn control by supercharging
`
`Figures 5 (a),
`
`(b) and (c) show the simulation
`
`results with high supercharging and lean burn. When
`
`the target torque is more than T1 = 50 Nm, the power
`source switched from the electric machine to the
`
`engine. When the air mass ratio A/AO becomes more
`
`, the supercharge starts, the air mass ratio
`
`A/AO is finally doubled.
`
`In Figure 5(a), at T=50 Nm,
`
`the supercharger
`
`starts
`
`simultaneously with
`
`the
`
`switching to the engine. When the target
`
`torque
`
`becomes higher
`
`than T2, The air-fuel
`
`ratio A/F
`
`lower
`
`than 40.
`
`In Figure
`
`5(b),
`
`the
`
`supercharger starts at T: 78 Nm. The air-fuel ratio
`
`A/F is increased temporally from 20 to 40. When the
`
`torque becomes T3,
`
`the air mass A is
`
`decreased by decreasing the air-fuel ratio from 20 to
`
`15 stepwise ,without passing into the high nitorogen
`
`oxide emission region.
`
`5
`
`(c)
`
`shows
`
`the
`
`result with
`
`high
`
`supercharging when pressure is controlled by the
`
`bypass valve proportionally to keep the air—fuel ratio at
`
`15. When the target torque becomes T2, the air mass
`
`is decreased slightly to decrease the air-fuel
`
`ratio
`
`from 20 to 15 by controlling the throttle valve. When
`
`the target torque increases further, the supercharger
`
`starts again and the pressure is controlled by the
`
`bypass valve.
`
`3.4 Smooth gear shift with exhaust gas recycle
`
`Figures 6 (a)—(d) show the results when
`
`the gear
`
`F/FOA/AoA/F/xo
`
`
`
`T/100
`
`Nut
`
`(21) Early supercharging
`
`F/FOA/AOA/F/xo
`
`
`
`T/ 100
`
`Nm
`
`(b) Late supercharging
`
`F/FOA/AOA/F/lo
`
`l
`
`N 01
`
`
`
`is shifted from 4th to 2nd at the target torques are
`
`0
`
`Tg=100 Nm, 170 Nm, 238 Nm, and 300 Nm,
`
`respectively. The engine torque must be changed
`
`simultaneously, so that the output torque remains the
`
`same during the shift operation. The engine torque is
`
`1
`
`2
`
`T/100 Nm
`
`3
`
`(c) Proportional supercharging
`
`Fig. 5 Fuel mass F,air mass A and EGR mass G
`
`Page 11 of 151
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`Page 12 of 151
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`FORD 1224
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`

`becomes higher than T4 ( Figures 6 (a)-(c)), the air—
`
`3.5 Smooth gear shift with lean burn control
`
`fuel ratio becomes lower than 15. As the target torque
`
`Figures 8 (a)-(c) show the results when the gear is
`
`at the gear shift Tg becomes higher, the region of
`
`shifted from 4th to 2nd at the target torque Tg=70 Nm,
`
`supercharging increases.
`
`In Figure 6 (d),the air-fuel
`
`ratio becomes less than 15 at T=230-300 Nm,
`
`resulting in
`
`the
`
`increase
`
`of
`
`carbon monoxide
`
`170 Nm and 238 Nm, respectively. As Tg becomes
`higher, the target torque when the superchager starts
`becomes lower. The engine torque must be changed
`
`so that the output torque remains the same during the
`
`Figures 7 (a) and (b) show the total mass Gv (the
`
`shift operation. The engine torque can be controlled
`
`sum of air mass and EGR mass) as a function of the
`
`by controlling the fuel mass only. The air mass
`
`torque T. Tg is the target
`
`torque at gear
`
`remains the same during the shift operation.
`
`4 F
`3.5 .
`1T1
`
`..\
`Elana
`‘
`“
`
`T3
`
`~
`
`",TZ
`
`
`'=-
`1
`
`T4
`l
`
`3
`
`l
`
`
`
`
`
`1
`
`2
`
`3
`T/100
`
`4
`Nm
`
`5
`
`6
`
`2 2.5 l
`2
`l
`2
`2!.
`
`\.x:
`
`1i
`
`g 1.5
`a
`1
`
`0.5
`
`0 ,
`0
`
`4
`
`(21)ng 70Nm
`
`_.
`s-.\
`:2.
`'-
`
`.
`:
`
`T2
`
`t
`
`\
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`T4
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`l
`3.5 l
`1
`3
`1 11
`1.1.
`E Z 5
`'
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`0 f
`
`1
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`0.5 i
`0 I
`0
`
`
`
`1
`
`2
`
`3
`1/100
`
`4
`N111
`
`5
`
`6
`
`(b) Tg= 170 Nm
`
`2
`ix
`o
`
`k 1.5L.-
`
`l
`
`
`F/FOA/AOA/F/lO
`
`shift .The gear is shifted from 4th to 2nd. The total
`
`mass ratio Gv/GvO is lowered when the Tg becomes
`
`lower. Thus,
`
`the
`
`target
`
`torque T when
`
`the
`
`supercharger '
`
`starts
`
`,
`
`, becomes higher. When
`
`Tg is 100 Nm, the supercharger starts at the target
`torque T of less than 100 Nm.
`
`
`
`T/100
`
`Nm
`
`(3) Tg= 70 Nm
`
`O
`
`T/ 100
`
`Nm
`
`Page 13 of 151
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`

`Figures 9 (a) and (b) show the results when gear
`
`to estimate this air mass in advance of fuel injection
`
`is shifted from 4th to 2nd at the target torque Tg=70
`
`timing and before placingl the fuel in the cylinders. In
`
`Nm, 171 Nm, respectively. As the target torque at
`
`case of gasoline direct injection the fuel
`
`injection is
`
`gear
`
`shift Tg becomes higher,
`
`the
`
`region
`
`of
`
`free from compensation for the fueling dynamics.
`
`supercharging becomes wider, the region of the air-
`fuel ratio A/F of more than 20 becomes narrower.
`
`4 F...
`
`,I/TZ
`
`3,5 -
`1
`
`N 01OJ
`
`~—1 i—
`
`~—1,3;
`
`._.;J1
`
`
`
`
`
`
`T/100
`
`Nm
`
`(3) Tg= 70 Nm
`
`
`
`
`
`
`(b) Tg= 170 Nm
`
`Fig. 9 Fuel mass F, air mass A, EGR mass
`as a function of the target torque T
`
`3.6 Air-fuel ratio control
`
`As mentioned before, the fuel mass is controlled
`
`by the air mass which is generally measured by the
`
`flow meter. During switching from the electric
`
`machine to the engine,
`
`the air mass increases
`
`stepwise against the target torque T to maintain the
`
`When the capacity of the compressor, the surge tank
`
`and the intercooier in the intake system [17] is larger
`
`in Figure 3, the air mass going through the air flow
`
`meter increases temporarily to fill the surge tank and
`
`intercooier
`
`during
`
`throttle
`
`opening
`
`and
`
`the
`
`compressor
`
`starting. The
`
`air mass must
`
`be
`
`compensated also according to the response lag of
`
`the airflow meter and the filling lag of the EGR.
`
`The filling spike must be compensated to reduce
`
`fluctuation of the air-fuel ratio which is apt to increase
`
`exhaust emissions. This compensation is attained by
`
`using the aerodynamic model of the intake system
`
`[13]. The air mass into the cylinder is calculated by
`
`using the intake manifold filling dynamics and the
`
`compressor dynamics. Then, the model of the intake
`
`system to predict future air mass is applied. Some
`
`simulation results, obtained by the method mentioned
`
`above, are shown in Figure 10 which has samples of
`
`the traces for
`air mass flow rate Wa, Wc, Wb, Wh,
`and We and the pressure pi
`(105
`Pa) at
`the
`intercooler when the compressor is started during 0-
`
`0.2 s and the bypass valve is closed during 0.3-0.4 s.
`
`Wa is the measuring value by the airflow meter. The
`estimated air mass, We, is close to the air mass
`
`0.03 g
`
`
`
`WeWeWhweWb(kQ/S)Di/lUU
`
`0. 025 -
`
`0.015 -
`
`0.01
`
`0. 02
`
`
`
`Page 14 of 151
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`FORD 1224
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`

`entering the cylinder. It is seen that the air mass can
`
`Regeneration cannot be executed when the battery
`
`be estimated at the beginning of the intake stroke,
`
`charge is full.
`
`integration of brake and drivetrain
`
`resulting in the fuel supply without any delay, thus a
`
`controls
`
`allows maximum energy recovery with
`
`precise air-fuel ratio control.
`
`3.7 Control strategies
`
`(1) Dymamic compensation
`
`Good acceleration performance will require some
`
`modification for the strategy mentioned in section 3.6.
`
`The output torque is reduced during the change in
`
`gear ratio and the power source (engine, electric
`
`minimal
`
`friction braking. This dynamic interaction
`
`between the vehicle's brake and drivetrain systems
`
`also improves driveability.
`
`(5) Power assist with electric machine
`The electric machine is connected between the
`
`engine and transmission or between the transmission
`and the wheel. In the former, the electric machine can
`
`machine) because part of the engine torque is used to
`
`assist synchronization of the gear sets during the shift
`
`accelerate the engine itself. The power is controlled
`
`operation in
`
`the synchromesh transmission. The
`
`by compensating the fuel mass and air mass through
`
`operating force becomes unnecessary, and the
`
`dynamic models, resulting in smooth switching and
`reduced drivetrain vibration.
`
`friction
`
`cones
`
`for
`
`synchronism are
`
`eliminated.
`
`Therefore,
`
`the
`
`gear
`
`shift mechanism in
`
`the
`
`(2) Damping of the torque oscillation
`
`synchromesh transmission becomes very simple.
`
`In
`
`The torque of
`
`the engine is controlled during
`
`the latter,
`
`the electric machine can assist power
`
`acceleration by monitoring differences between
`
`supply to the wheel during the shift operation in the
`
`engine and wheel speeds in order to provide a
`
`synchromesh
`
`transmission,
`
`resulting
`
`in
`
`better
`
`measure of phase differences in the event of engine
`
`driveability.
`
`torque oscillating. The difference between the engine
`
`and wheel signals is integrated and fed to an ignition
`
`3.8 Future outlook
`
`angle correction circuit
`
`in order to damp out
`
`the
`
`The system mentioned above is a concept,
`
`torque oscillations
`
`[18]. Or,
`
`the fuel mass
`
`is
`
`although some components and subsystems have
`
`compensated in place of the ignition angle.
`
`In the
`
`been tested already. More detailed analysis would be
`
`the
`the transmission without power shift,
`will
`increase when the fuel mass is
`
`conducted to demonstrate the magnitude of
`
`the
`
`efficiency gains by introducing all components and
`
`increased stepwise after the gear engagement. The
`
`subsystems in a testing vehicle.
`
`fuel mass is controlled,
`
`taking the oscillation into
`
`consideration or, the control is executed by estimating
`
`4. SUMMARY
`
`the torque by engine speed signal [19].
`
`(3)Block of the shift
`
`A fuel efficient engine drivetrain control system
`
`The control system compares and calculates the
`
`was proposed which combines a lean burn engine
`
`difference between two stationary torques calculated
`
`with a supercharging, an exhaust gas recycle, an
`
`at different times. Then it recognizes whether the
`
`electric machine
`
`for
`
`power
`
`assist,
`
`and
`
`an
`
`vehicle is on the crest of a hill or in a valley, and
`
`electronically controlled trasmission. The smooth
`
`whether the vehicle is traveling uphill or downhill over
`
`switching of power source, the lean burn control with
`
`the crest of the hill or through a valley. The gear shift
`
`supercharging,
`
`the smooth gear shift with exhaust
`
`is blocked according to this information to avoid
`
`gas recycle control and lean burn control, and the air-
`
`frequent gear shifts.
`
`(4) Integration of brake control
`
`fuel
`
`ratio control by using an air flow meter were
`
`analyzed to attain better fuel economy and better
`
`Full utilization of regenerative braking increases
`
`driveability.
`
`electric machine operating range by 25% [20]. The
`
`engine brake, wheel brake, and regeneration by the
`
`Page 15 of 151
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`FORD 1224
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`

`Detroit, Michigan, February 24—27, 1997
`
`972496, Yokohama, Japan, May 1997
`
`[2] Hybrid Honda adds smooth power boost, WARD'S
`
`and Vehicle Technology Update,
`Engine
`November 1,1996
`
`p.2,
`
`[3] Carb to test Mitubishi hybrid-electric vehicle,
`
`WARD'S Engine and Vehicle Technology Update, p.7,
`June 1, 1995
`
`[12] N. P. Fekete, U. Nester, I. Gruden, J. D. Powell,
`Model—Based Air-Fuel Ratio Control of a Lean Multi-
`
`CyIinder Engine, SAE Paper 950846,
`
`International
`
`Congress and Exposition, Detroit, Michigan, February
`27—March 2, 1995
`
`[13] H. Machida, H.
`
`Itoh, T.
`
`lmanishi, H. Tanaka,
`
`[4] Toyota explains its 70-mpg semi—hybrid, WARD'S
`
`Design Principle of High Power Traction Drive CVT,
`
`and Vehicle Technology Update,
`Engine
`November 15,1995
`
`p.5,
`
`[5] W. Kalkert, W.Adams, Future Powertrain Systems,
`
`AVL Conference “Engine and Environment” ‘94,Graz,
`Austria, June 16, 1994
`
`[6] Y. Ohyama, An advanced engine drivetrain control
`
`system that
`
`improves fuel economy and lowers
`
`exhaust
`
`emissions,
`
`5th
`
`International Congress,
`
`European
`
`Automobile
`
`Engineers Cooperation,
`
`Strasburg, 21-23 June 1995.
`
`[7] Y. Ohyama, A new engine drivetrain control
`
`SAE Paper 950675,
`
`International Congress and
`
`Exposition, Detroit, February 27-March 2, 1995
`[14] A. Norzi, G. Cuzzucoli, How Electronic Controls
`
`Make
`
`It
`
`Possible
`
`to Automate Conventional
`
`Transmission for Commercial Vehicles, FISITA'94
`
`Technical Paper 945233 ,17-21 October 1994, Beijing
`[15] A. Hedman, Synchromesh Transmissions with
`
`Power-Shifting Ability—Improved Truck Performance,
`S|A 9506A18, 5th International Congress, European
`
`Automobile Engineers Cooperation, Strasbourg, 21-
`23 June 1995
`
`system, 29th International Symposium on Automotive
`
`[16] Transmission Antonov:
`
`la
`
`serie
`
`en
`
`1998,
`
`Italy, 3-6 June
`
`lngenieurs
`
`de
`
`L'AutomobiIe,novembre-decembre
`
`Technology & Automation, Florence,
`1996
`
`1996, p.34—35
`
`[8] Y. Ohyama, A Fuel Efficient Engine Drivetrain
`
`[17] Yoshishige Ohyama, Yutaka Nishimura, Minoru
`
`Control System, 9th International Pacific Conference
`
`Ohsuga, Teruo Yamauchi, Hot—Wire Air Flow Meter
`
`Engineering,
`on Automotive
`November 16—21,1997
`
`Bali,
`
`Indonesia,
`
`for Gasoline Fuel—Injection System,
`
`1996 JSAE
`
`Autumn Convention Proceedings No 965, October 4-
`
`[9] Y.Ohyama, A Fuel Efficient Hybrid Drivetrain
`
`6, Sapporo, Japan
`
`Control System, Autotech 97, 4—6 November, 1997,
`
`[18] PCT Patent No. WO 90/06441, 14 June 1990
`
`Birmingham, UK.
`
`[10] Y. Ohyama, M. Fujieda, A new engine control
`
`system using direct fuel injection and variable valve
`
`timing,
`
`SAE
`
`Paper No.950973,
`
`1995
`
`International Congress
`
`and Exposition,
`
`SAE
`Detroit,
`
`‘
`
`Feburuary 27—March 2, 1995
`
`[11]
`
`S. Nakahara,
`
`J. Mitzuda, Y. Sato,
`
`H.
`
`[19] S. Drakunov, G.Rizzoni, Y. Y. Wang, On-Line
`
`Estimation of Indicated Torque in IC Engines Using
`
`Nonlinear
`
`Observers,
`
`SAE
`
`Paper
`
`950840,
`
`International Congress
`
`and Exposition, Detroit,
`
`Michigan, February 27—March 2, 1995
`
`[20] D. E. Schenk, R. L. Wells, J. E. Miller, Intelligent
`
`Braking for Current and Future Vehicles, SAE Paper
`
`Yamnagihara, A study of Rapid Combustion with High
`
`950762, Interntional Congress and Exposition, Detroit,
`
`Dispersed
`
`FueI-Air Mixure
`
`under High
`
`Load
`
`Michigan, February 27—March 2, 1995
`
`Operation, 1997 JSAE Spring Convention, Paper No.
`
`Page 16 of 151
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`FORD 1224
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`

`

`Energy Regeneration of Heavy Duty Diesel Powered
`Vehicles
`
`980891
`
`Matsuo Odaka, Noriyuki Koike
`Traffic Safety and Nuisance Research Institute
`Ministry of Transport, Japan
`
`Yoshito Hijikata, Toshihide Miyajima
`Hino Motors, Ltd.
`
`Copyright © 1998 Society of Automotive Engineers, Inc.
`
`The objective of this study is to impr