0001
`
`IBG 1023 1 of 3
`CBM of U.S. Patent No. 7,693,768
`
`

`
`Designing the User Interrace
`
`Strategies for Effective
`Human-Computer Interaction
`Third Edition
`
`Ben Shneiderman
`The University of Maryland
`
`..,fy ADDISON-WESLEY
`An imprint of Addison Wesley Longman, Inc.
`
`Reading, Massachusetts • Harlow, England • Menlo Park, California
`Berkeley, California • Don Mills, Ontario • Sydney • Bonn • Amsterdam
`Tokyo • Mexico City
`
`0002
`
`

`
`Many of the designations used by manufacturers and sellers to distinguish their
`products are claimed as trademarks. Where those designations appear in this
`book, and Addison-Wesley was aware of a trademark claim, the designations
`have been printed in initial caps or all caps.
`
`Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
`Shneiderman, Ben.
`Designing the user interface : strategies for effective hun1.an
`-computer-interaction I Ben Shneiderman. -- 3rd ed.
`p.
`em.
`Includes bibliographical references and index.
`ISBN 0-201-69497-2
`1. Human-computer interaction.
`I. Title.
`systems)
`QA76.9.H85S54 1998
`004'.01'9--dc21
`
`2. User interfaces (Computer
`
`96-37974
`CIP
`
`Access the latest information about Addison-Wesley titles from our World Wide
`Web site: http:/ /www.awl.com/cseng
`
`Chapter opener illustrations from art provided by Mark Kostabi. Reproduced
`with permission.
`
`Cover art© Boris Lyubner /SIS
`
`Copyright© 1998 by Addison Wesley Longman, Inc.
`
`Reprinted with corrections, March 1998.
`
`All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a
`retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic,
`mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior written
`permission of the publisher. Printed in the United States of America.
`
`6 7 8 9 10-MA-01009998
`
`0003
`
`

`
`Preface to the Third Edition
`
`Designing the User Interface is intended prilnarily for designers, managers,
`and evaluators of interactive systems. It presents a broad survey of design(cid:173)
`ing, implementing, managing, maintaining, training, and refining the user
`interface of interactive systems. The book's second audience is researchers in
`human-computer interaction, specifically those who are interested in
`human performance with interactive systems. These researchers may have
`backgrounds in computer science, psychology, information systems, library
`science, business, education, human factors, ergonomics, or industrial engi(cid:173)
`neering; all share a desire to understand the c01nplex interaction of people
`with machines. Students in these fields also will benefit from the contents of
`this book. It is my hope that this book will stimulate the introduction of
`courses on user-interface design in all these and other disciplines. Finally,
`serious users of interactive systems will find that the book gives them a more
`thorough understanding of the design questions for user interfaces. My
`goals are to encourage greater attention to the user interface and to help
`develop a rigorous science of user-interface design.
`Since publication of the first two editions of this book in 1986 and 1992,
`researchers in the field of human-computer interaction and practitioners of
`user-interface design have grown more numerous and influential. The qual(cid:173)
`ity of interfaces has improved greatly, and the community of users has
`grown dramatically. Researchers and designers could claim success, but user
`expectations are higher and the applications are more demanding. Today' s
`interfaces are good, but novice and expert users still experience anxiety and
`frustration all too often. To achieve the goal of universal access, designers
`will have to continue to work harder. This book is meant to help them keep
`up the momentum, and thus to encouragefurther progress.
`Keeping up with the innovations in human-computer interaction is a
`demanding task. Requests for an update to my second edition began shortly
`after its publication, but I had to wait until a sabbatical year allowed me to
`set aside enough time to complete this third edition. I've gone to the library,
`the World Wide Web, conferences, and colleagues to harvest information,
`and then returned to my keyboard to write. My first drafts were only a start(cid:173)
`ing point to generate feedback from colleagues, practitioners, and students.
`The work was intense and satisfying.
`
`New in the Third Edition
`
`Comments from instructors who used the second edition were influential in
`my revisions of the structure. Since many courses include design, evaluation,
`
`iii
`
`0004
`
`

`
`iv
`
`Preface
`
`and construction projects, the chapters on development 1nethodologies,
`evaluation techniques, and software tools were 1noved toward the begin(cid:173)
`ning. Since direct manipulation is the dmninant user-interface style, it is pre(cid:173)
`sented first, followed by menus, form fillin, and cmnmand languages. The
`material on computer-supported cooperative work has changed dramati(cid:173)
`cally as research ideas and prototypes have become commercial tools. Infor(cid:173)
`mation visualization is still in its early phases, but vigorous research and
`emerging com1nercial activity are widespread. The closing chapter on the
`rapidly growing World Wide Web is totally new.
`Instructors wanted more guidelines and sum1nary tables; these ele1nents
`are now shown in boxes throughout the book. The Practitioner Summaries
`and Researcher Agendas remain popular; they have been updated. The ref(cid:173)
`erences have been expanded and freshened with many new sources, with
`classic papers still included. Because some of the previously cited works
`were difficult to find, a much larger percentage of the references now are
`widely available sources. Figures-especially
`those showing screen
`designs-age quickly. In this edition, numerous new user interfaces are
`shown, 1nany in full color.
`Readers will see the dynamism of human-computer interaction reflected
`in the substantial changes to this third edition. Controversy continues about
`the future of speech input and output, natural-language interaction, anthro(cid:173)
`pomorphic design, and agents. I emphasize empirical reports, try to present
`both sides fairly, and offer my opinions.
`
`The presence of the World Wide Web has a profound effect on
`researchers, designers, educators, and students. I want to encourage
`intense use of the web by all these groups and to ease integration of the
`web into common practice. However, the volatility of the web is not in
`harmony with the permanence of printed books. Publishing website
`URLs in the book would have been risky, because changes are made
`daily. For these and other reasons, with the cooperation of my publisher
`and Prof. Blaise Liffick (Millersville University), we have established an
`ambitious web site (http:/ /www.aw.com/DTUI) to accompany this
`book. It contains pointers to web sites related to each chapter's topics,
`updates on fast-changing topics, interesting reviews, and instructional
`support. Exercises, homework assignments, projects, and examination
`questions are just a few of the elements of this evolving site. Contribu(cid:173)
`tions from professionals, faculty, and students are making this resource
`increasingly valuable, and the community using it is lively and growing.
`I hope that every reader will visit the site, will participate in discussion
`groups, and will contribute to it. Send us your ideas and contributions.
`
`0005
`
`

`
`Preface
`
`v
`
`Ways to Use This Book
`
`I hope that practitioners and researchers who read this book will want to
`keep it on their shelves to consult when they are working on a new topic or
`seeking pointers to the literature.
`Instructors may choose to assign the full text in the order that I present it,
`or to make selections fr01n it. The opening chapter is a good starting point for
`1nost students, but instructors may take different paths depending on their
`disciplines. For example, instructors might emphasize the following chap(cid:173)
`ters, listed by area:
`
`• Computer science: 2, 5, 6, 13, 14, 15
`• Psychology:2,4,9, 10,14
`• Library and infonnation science: 2, 4, 12, 15, 16
`• Business and information systems: 3, 4, 14, 15
`• Education technology: 2, 4, 11, 12, 14, 16
`• Communication arts and media studies: 4, 11, 12, 16
`• Technical writing and graphic design: 3, 4, 11, 12, 15, 16
`
`The book's web site provides syllabi from many instructors, and offers
`supplemental teaching materials.
`
`Acknowledgments
`
`Writing is a lonely process; revising is a social one. I am grateful to the many
`colleagues and students who contributed their suggestions. My close daily
`partners at the University of Maryland have the greatest influence and my
`deepest appreciation: Gary Marchionini, Kent Norman,.Catherine Plaisant,
`and Anne Rose. I give special thanks to Charles Kreitzberg and Jenny Preece
`for their personal and professional support. Other major contributors of use(cid:173)
`ful comments include Richard Bellaver, Tom Bruns, Stephan Greene, Jesse
`Heines, Eser Kandogan, Chris North, Arkady Pogostkin, Richard Potter,
`Marilyn Saltzman, Michael Spring, Egemen Tanin, and Craig Wills. The
`many people and organizations that provided figures are acknowledged in
`the relevant captions.
`I also appreciate the students around the world who sent me comments
`and suggestions. Their provocative questions about our growing discipline
`and profession encourage me daily.
`
`Ben Shneiderman (ben@cs.umd.edu)
`
`0006
`
`

`
`0007
`
`

`
`Contents
`
`CHAPTER 1 HUMAN FACTORS OF INTERACTIVE SOFTWARE 3
`1.1
`Introduction 4
`1.2 Goals of System Engineering 9
`1.2.1 Proper functionality 11
`1.2.2 Reliability, availability, security, and data integrity 12
`1.2.3 Standardization, integration, consistency, and portability 13
`1.2.4 Schedules and budgets 14
`1.3 Goals of User-Interface Design 14
`1.4 Motivations for Human Factors in Design 16
`1.4.1 Life-critical systems 16
`1.4.2
`Industrial and commercial uses 16
`1.4.3 Office, home, and entertain1nent applications 17
`1.4.4 Exploratory, creative, and cooperative systems 17
`1.5 Accom1nodation of Ht.nnan Diversity 18
`1.5.1 Physical abilities and physical workplaces 18
`1.5.2 Cognitive and perceptual abilities 20
`1.5.3 Personality differences 21
`1.5.4 Cultural and international diversity 23
`1.5.5 Users with disabilities 24
`1.5.6 Elderly users 26
`1.6 Goals for Our Profession 28
`1.6.1
`Influencing acade1nic and industrial researchers 28
`1.6.2 Providing tools, techniques, and knowledge for syste1ns
`implementers 31
`1.6.3 Raising the cmnputer consciousness of the general public 31
`1.7 Practitioner's Summary 32
`1.8 Researcher's Agenda 32
`
`CHAPTER 2 THEORIES, PRINCIPLES, AND GUIDELINES 51
`Introduction 52
`2.1
`2.2 High-Level Theories 53
`2.2.1 Conceptual, semantic, syntactic, and lexical model 54
`2.2.2 GOMS and the keystroke-level model 55
`2.2.3 Stages of action models 57
`2.2.4 Consistency through grmnmars 58
`2.2.5 Widget-level theories 60
`2.3 Object-Action Interface Model 61
`2.3.1 Task hierarchies of objects and actions 63
`
`vii
`
`0008
`
`

`
`viii
`
`Contents
`
`Interface hierarchies of objects and actions 64
`2.3.2
`2.3.3 The disappearance of syntax 65
`2.4 Principle 1: Recognize the Diversity 67
`2.4.1 Usage profiles 67
`2.4.2 Task profiles 70
`Interaction styles 71
`2.4.3
`2.5 Principle 2: Use the Eight Golden Rules of Interface Design 74
`2.6 Principle 3: Prevent Errors 76
`2.6.1 Correct matching pairs 77
`2.6.2 Complete sequences 77
`2.6.3 Correct cmnmands 78
`2.7 Guidelines for Data Display 79
`2.7.1 Organizing the display 80
`2.7.2 Getting the user's attention 81
`2.8 Guidelines for Data Entry 82
`2.9 Balance of Automation and Human Control 83
`2.10 Practitioner's Sum.mary 89
`2.11 Researcher's Agenda 90
`
`CHAPTER 3 MANAGING DESIGN PROCESSES 95
`Introduction 96
`3.1
`3.2 Organizational Design to Support Usability 97
`3.3 The Three Pillars of Design 100
`3.3.1 Guidelines documents and processes 100
`3.3.2 User-interface software tools 102
`3.3.3 Expert reviews and usability testing 103
`3.4 Development Methodologies 104
`3.5 Ethnographic Observation 107
`3.6 Participatory Design 109
`3.7 Scenario Development 111
`3.8 Social Impact Statement for Early Design Review 113
`3.9 Legal Issues 115
`3.10 Practitioner's Summary 118
`3.11 Researcher's Agenda 118
`
`CHAPTER 4 EXPERT REVIEWS, USABILITY TESTING, SURVEYS, AND
`CONTINUING ASSESSMENTS 123
`Introduction 124
`4.1
`4.2 Expert Reviews 125
`4.3 Usability Testing and Laboratories 127
`4.4 Surveys 132
`
`0009
`
`

`
`Contents
`
`ix
`
`4.5 Acceptance Tests 135
`4.6 Evaluation During Active Use 145
`Interviews and focus-group discussions 145
`4.6.1
`4.6.2 Continuous user-perfonnance data logging 146
`4.6.3 Online or telephone consultants 147
`4.6.4 Online suggestion box or trouble reporting 147
`4.6.5 Online bulletin board or newsgroup 148
`4.6.6 User newsletters and conferences 148
`4.7 Controlled Psychologically Oriented Experiments 149
`4.8 Practitioner's Summary 150
`4.9 Researcher's Agenda 151
`
`CHAPTER 5 SOFTWARE TOOLS 155
`Introduction 156
`5.1
`5.2 Specification Methods 157
`5.2.1 Grammars 158
`5.2.2 Menu-selection and dialog-box trees 160
`5.2.3 Transition diagrams 160
`5.2.4 Statecharts 162
`5.2.5 User-action notation (UAN) 163
`Interface-Building Tools 166
`5.3.1 Design tools 168
`5.3.2 Software-engineering tools 169
`5.4 Evaluation and Critiquing Tools. 177
`5.5 Practitioner's Summary 179
`5.6 Researcher's Agenda 181
`
`5.3
`
`CHAPTER 6 DIRECT MANIPULATION AND VIRTUAL
`ENVIRONMENTS 185
`Introduction 186
`6.1
`6.2 Examples of Direct-Manipulation Systems 187
`6.2.1 Command-line versus display editors versus word
`processors 187
`6.2.2 The VisiCalc spreadsheet and its descendants 191
`6.2.3 Spatial data management 192
`6.2.4 Video games 193
`6.2.5 Computer-aided design 197
`6.2.6 Office automation 199
`6.2.7 Further exmnples of direct manipulation 201
`6.3 Explanations of Direct Manipulation 202
`
`0010
`
`

`
`x
`
`Contents
`
`6.3.1 Problems with direct manipulation 204
`6.3.2 The OAI model explanation of direct manipulation 205
`6.4 Visual Thinking and Icons 207
`6.5 Direct-Manipulation Programming 210
`6.6 Home Automation 213
`6.7 Remote Direct Manipulation 217
`6.8 Virtual Environ1nents 221
`6.9 Practitioner's Summary 228
`6.10 Researcher's Agenda 229
`
`CHAPTER 7 MENU SELECTION, FORM FILLIN, AND
`DIALOG BOXES 235
`Introduction 236
`7.1
`7.2 Task-Related Organization 237
`7.2.1 Single 1nenus 238
`7.2.2 Linear sequences and multiple 1nenus 247
`7.2.3 Tree-structured menus 247
`7.2.4 Acyclic and cyclic menu networks 252
`Item Presentation Sequence 252
`7.3
`7.4 Response Time and Display Rate 254
`7.5 Fast Movement Through Menus 255
`7.5.1 Menus with typeahead: The BLT approach 255
`7.5.2 Menu names or bookmarks for direct access 256
`7.5.3 Menu macros, custom toolbars, and style sheets 257
`7.6 Menu Layout 257
`7.6.1 Titles 257
`7.6.2 Phrasing of menu items 259
`7.6.3 Graphic layout and design 259
`7.7 Form Fillin 262
`7.7.1 Form-fillin design guidelines 262
`7.7.2 List and combo boxes 265
`7.7.3 Coded fields 266
`7.8 Dialog Boxes 268
`7.9 Practitioner's Summary 270
`7.10 Researcher's Agenda 270
`
`CHAPTER 8 COMMAND AND NATURAL LANGUAGES 275
`Introduction 276
`8.1
`8.2 Functionality to Support Users' Tasks_ 280
`
`0011
`
`

`
`Contents
`
`xi
`
`8.3 Command-Organization Strategies 282
`8.3.1 Single command set 282
`8.3.2 Comm.and plus arguments 282
`8.3.3 Command plus options and arguments 284
`8.3.4 Hierarchical command structure 285
`8.4 The Benefits of Structure 285
`8.4.1 Consistent argument ordering 286
`8.4.2 Symbols versus keywords 286
`8.4.3 Hierarchical structure and congruence 287
`8.5 Naming and Abbreviations 289
`8.5.1 Specificity versus generality 289
`8.5.2 Abbreviation strategies 290
`8.5.3 Guidelines for using abbreviations 291
`8.6 C01n1nand Menus 292
`8.7 Natural Language in Computing 293
`8.7.1 Natural-language interaction 294
`8.7.2 Natural-language queries 296
`8.7.3 Test-database searching 297
`8.7.4 Natural-language text generation 300
`8.7.5 Adventure and educational games 300
`8.8 Practitioner's Summary 300
`8.9 Researcher's Agenda 301
`
`INTERACTION DEVICES 305
`CHAPTER 9
`9.1
`Introduction 306
`9.2 Keyboards and Function Keys 307
`9.2.1 Keyboard layouts 308
`9.2.2 Keys 311
`9.2.3 Function keys 312
`9.2.4 Cursor movement keys 313
`9.3 Pointing Devices 315
`9.3.1 Pointing tasks 315
`9.3.2 Direct-control pointing devices 316
`9.3.3
`Indirect-control pointing devices 319
`9.3.4 Comparisons of pointing devices 323
`9.3.5 Fitts' Law 325
`9.3.6 Novel pointing devices 326
`9.4 Speech Recognition, Digitization, and Generation 327
`9.4.1 Discrete-word recognition 328
`9.4.2 Continuous-speech recognition 331
`9.4.3 Speech store and forward 332
`
`0012
`
`

`
`xii
`
`Contents
`
`9.5
`
`9.4.4 Speech generation 333
`9.4.5 Audio tones, audiolization, and 1nusic 335
`Image and Video Displays 336
`9.5.1 Display devices 336
`9.5.2 Digital photography and scanners 339
`9.5.3 Digital video 339
`9.5.4 Projectors, heads-up displays, hehnet-mounted displays 341
`9.6 Printers 342
`9.7 Practitioner's Summary 343
`9.8 Researcher's Agenda 344
`
`CHAPTER 10 RESPONSE TIME AND DISPLAY RATE 351
`Introduction 352
`10.1
`10.2 Theoretical Foundations 354
`10.2.1 Limitations of short-term and working memory 355
`10.2.2 Sources of errors 356
`10.3 Expectations and Attitudes 358
`10.4 User Productivity 361
`10.4.1 Repetitive tasks 361
`10.4.2 Problem-solving tasks 362
`10.4.3 Summary 364
`10.5 Variability 364
`10.6 Practitioner's Summary 366
`10.7 Researcher's Agenda 367
`
`CHAPTER 11 PRESENTATION STYLES: BALANCING FUNCTION
`AND FASHION 371
`Introduction 372
`11.1
`11.2 Error Messages 373
`11.2.1 Specificity 374
`11.2.2 Constructive guidance and positive tone 375
`11.2.3 User-centered phrasing 376
`11.2.4 Appropriate physical format 376
`11.2.5 Development of effective messages 377
`11.3 Nonanthropomorphic Design 380
`11.4 Display Design 384
`11.4.1 Field layout 387
`11.4.2 Empirical results 389
`11.4.3 Display-complexity metrics 391
`11.5 Color 398
`
`0013
`
`

`
`Contents
`
`xiii
`
`11.6 Practitioner's Summary 403
`11.7 Researcher's Agenda 403
`
`CHAPTER 12 PRINTED MANUALS, ONLINE HELP, AND
`TUTORIALS 409
`Introduction 410
`12.1
`12.2 Reading from Paper versus from Displays 412
`12.3 Preparation of Printed Manuals 414
`12.3.1 Use of the OAI Model to design manuals 415
`12.3.2 Organization and writing style 417
`12.3.3 Nonanthropomorphic descriptions 421
`12.3.4 Development process 423
`12.4 Preparation of Online Facilities 425
`12.4.1 Online manuals 428
`12.4.2 Online tutorials, demonstrations, and animations 434
`12.4.3 Helpful guides 436
`12.5 Practitioner's Summary 437
`12.6 Researcher's Agenda 438
`
`CHAPTER 13 MULTIPLE-WINDOW STRATEGIES 443
`Introduction 444
`13.1
`13.2
`Individual-Window Design 448
`13.3 Multiple-Window Design 455
`13.4 Coordination by Tightly-Coupled Windows 458
`13.5
`Image Browsing and Tightly-Coupled Windows 462
`13.6 Personal Role Management and Elastic Windows 468
`13.7 Practitioner's Summary 472
`13.8 Researcher's Agenda 472
`
`CHAPTER 14 COMPUTER-SUPPORTED COOPERATIVE WORK 477
`14.1
`Introduction 478
`14.2 Goals of Cooperation 479
`14.3 . Asynchronous Interactions: Different Time, Different Place 482
`14.3.1 Electronic Mail 483
`14.3.2 Newsgroups and network communities 485
`14.4 Synchronous Distributed: Different Place, Same Time 488
`14.5 Face to Face: Same Place, Same Time 494
`14.6 Applying CSCW to Education 498
`14.7 Practitioner's Summary 502
`14.8 Researcher's Agenda 503
`
`0014
`
`

`
`xiv
`
`Contents
`
`INFORMATION SEARCH AND VISUALIZATION 509
`CHAPTER 15
`15.1
`Introduction 510
`15.2 Database Query and Phrase Search in Textual Documents 513
`15.3 Multimedia Document Searches 519
`15.4
`Infonnation Visualization 522
`15.5 Advanced Filtering 541
`15.6 Practitioner's Summary 544
`15.7 Researcher's Agenda 544
`
`CHAPTER 16 HYPERMEDIA AND THE WORLD WIDE WEB 551
`16.1
`Introduction 552
`16.2 Hypertext and Hypermedia 556
`16.3 World Wide Web 560
`16.4 Genres and Goals and Designers 562
`16.5 Users and Their Tasks 565
`16.6 Object-Action Interface Model for Web Site Design 567
`16.6.1 Design of task objects and actions 567
`16.6.2 Design of interface objects and actions 569
`16.6.3 Case study with the Library of Congress 571
`16.6.4 Detailed design issues 572
`16.6.5 Web-Page design 575
`16.6.6 Testing and maintenance of web sites 579
`16.7 Practitioner's Summary 580
`16.8 Researcher's Agenda 580
`
`AFTERWORD SOCIETAL AND INDIVIDUAL IMPACT OF
`USER INTERFACES 585
`A.1 Between Hope and Fear 586
`A.2 Ten Plagues of the Information Age 592
`A.3 Prevention of the Plagues 596
`A.4 Overcoming the Obstacle of Animism 597
`A.S
`In the Long Run 600
`A.6 Practitioner's Summary 601
`A.7 Researcher's Agenda 601
`
`N arne Index 605
`
`Subject Index 621
`
`0015
`
`

`
`De igning the
`user Interrace
`
`Strategies for Effective
`Hun1-an-Cornputer
`Interaction
`
`Third Edition
`
`0016
`
`

`
`Mark Kostabi, Technological Obsession (Moon and Mystery), 1996
`
`0017
`
`

`
`Hutnan Factors of
`Interactive Soft-w-are
`
`Designing an object to be simple and clear takes at least twice as long as the usual
`way. It requires concentration at the outset on how a clear and simple system would
`work, followed by the steps required to make it come out that way-steps which are
`often 1nuch harder and m.ore c01nplex than the ordinary ones. It also requires relent(cid:173)
`less pursuit of that simplicity even when obstacles appear which would seem to
`stand in the way of that simplicity.
`
`T. H. Nelson, The Home Computer Revolution, 1977
`
`0018
`
`

`
`BB
`
`~· ~ ..................................................................... " ......................................................... ..
`
`1.1 Introduction
`1.2 Goals of System Engineering
`1.3 Goals of User-Interface Design
`1.4 Motivations for Human Factors in Design
`1.5 Accommodation of Human Diversity
`1.6 Goals for Our Profession
`1.7 Practitioner's Summary
`1.8 Researcher's Agenda
`
`1.1
`
`Introduction
`
`New technologies provide extraordinary-almost supernatural-powers to
`those people who master them. Computer systems and accessible interfaces
`are still new technologies that are being rapidly disseminated. Great excite(cid:173)
`ment spreads as designers provide remarkable functions in carefully crafted
`interactive and networked systems. The opportunities for youthful system
`builders and mature entrepreneurs are substantial, and the impacts on indi(cid:173)
`viduals and organizations are profound.
`Like early photography equipment or automobiles, computers have been
`available only to people who were willing to devote effort to mastering the
`technology. Harnessing the cmnputer' s power is a task for designers who
`understand the technology and are sensitive to human capacities and needs.
`
`0019
`
`

`
`1.1
`
`Introduction
`
`5
`
`Human performance in the use of cmnputer and information systems will
`remain a rapidly expanding research and development topic in the cOining
`decades. This interdisciplinary journey of discovery combines the data-gath(cid:173)
`ering methods and intellectual framework of experimental psychology with
`the powerful and widely used tools developed from computer science. Con(cid:173)
`tributions also accrue from educational and industrial psychologists, instruc(cid:173)
`tional and graphic designers, technical writers, experts in human factors or
`ergonomics, and adventuresome anthropologists or sociologists.
`Applications developers who apply human-factors principles and processes
`are producing exciting interactive systems. Provocative ideas emerge in the
`pages of the numerous thick cmnputer magazines, the shelves of the proliferat(cid:173)
`ing computer stores, and the menus of the expanding computer networks. User
`interfaces produce corporate success stories and Wall Street sensations such as
`Netscape, America Online, or Lycos. They also produce intense competition
`(with Microsoft as a favorite ene1ny), copyright-infringement suits (such as
`Apple's suit against Microsoft covering the Windows interface), mega-1nergers
`(such as Bell Atlantic and NYNEX), takeovers (such as IBM grabbing Lotus),
`and international liaisons (such as British Telecmn's link to MCI).
`At an individual level, user interfaces change many people's lives: doctors
`can make more accurate diagnoses, children can learn more effectively,
`graphic artists can explore more creative possibilities, and pilots can fly air(cid:173)
`planes more safely. Some changes, however, are disruptive; too often, users
`must cope with frustration, fear, and failure when they encounter excessive
`complexity, incomprehensible terminology, or chaotic layouts.
`The steadily growing interest in user-interface design spans remarkably
`diverse systems (Figs. 1.1 to 1.7 and Color Plates Al to A6). Word processors
`and desktop-publishing tools are used routinely, and many businesses employ
`photo scanning and image-manipulation software. Electronic mail, computer
`conferencing, and the World Wide Web have provided new communication
`media. Digital image libraries are expanding in applications from 1nedicine to
`space exploration. Scientific visualization and simulator workstations allow
`safe experimentation and inexpensive training. Electronic spreadsheets and
`decision-support systems serve as tools for analysts from many disciplines.
`Educational and public access to information frmn museum kiosks or govern(cid:173)
`ment sources is expanding. Commercial systems include inventory, personnel,
`reservations, air traffic, and electric-utility control. Computer-assisted soft(cid:173)
`ware-engineering tools and programming environments allow rapid proto(cid:173)
`typing, as do computer-assisted design, manufacturing, and engineering
`workstations. Most of us use various consumer electronics, such as VCRs, tele(cid:173)
`phones, cameras, and appliances. Art, music, sports, and entertainment all are
`assisted or enhanced by computer systems.
`Practitioners and researchers in many fields are making vital contribu(cid:173)
`tions. Academic and industrial theorists in computer science, psychology,
`and human factors are developing perceptual, cognitive, and motor theories
`
`0020
`
`

`
`6
`
`1 Human Factors of Interactive Software
`
`I> D Colot· Ov>?t·he.ad
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`
`Figure 1.1
`
`Macintosh System 7.5. The active window, which shows stripes in the title bar, is on
`top. Windows can be dragged partially off the display to the left, right, and bottom.
`File and folder icons can be dragged to new folders or to the trashcan for deletion.
`(Used with permission of Apple Computer, Inc., Cupertino, CA.)
`
`and models of human performance, while experimenters are collecting
`empirical data.
`Software designers are exploring how best to organize information graph(cid:173)
`ically. They are developing query languages and visually attractive facilities
`for input, search, and output. They are using sound (such as music and
`voice), three-dimensional representations, anilnation, and video to improve
`the appeal and information content of interfaces. Techniques such as direct
`manipulation, telepresence, and virtual realities may change the ways that
`we interact with and think about computers.
`Hardware developers and system builders are offering novel keyboard
`designs and pointing devices, as well as laFge, high-resolution color displays.
`They are designing systems that both provide rapid response times for
`increasingly complex tasks and have fast display rates and smooth transitions
`
`0021
`
`

`
`1.1
`
`Introduction
`
`7
`
`r-ed/
`SCt'ipts/
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`bedmck 49 » ls vhe
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`
`Figure 1.2
`
`Unix Motif environment. A programmer is shown at work.
`
`for increasingly cmnplex 3-dilnensional manipulations. Technologies that
`allow speech input and output, gestural input, and tactile or force-feedback
`output increase ease of use, as do input devices such as the touchscreen and
`stylus.
`Developers with an orientation toward educational psychology, instruc(cid:173)
`tional design, and technical writing are creating engaging online tutorials,
`training, reference manuals, demonstrations and sales materials, and are
`exploring novel approaches to group lectures, distance learning, personal(cid:173)
`ized experiential training, and video presentations. Graphic designers are
`actively engaged in visual layout, color selection, and animation. Sociolo(cid:173)
`gists, anthropologists, philosophers, policy makers, and managers are deal(cid:173)
`ing with organizational impact, computer anxiety, job redesign, retraining,
`distributed teamwork, computer-supported cooperation strategies, work-at(cid:173)
`home schemes, and long-term societal changes.
`We are living in an exciting time for developers of user fnterfaces.· The
`hardware and software foundations for the bridges and tunnels have been
`built. Now the roadway can be laid and the stripes painted to make way for
`the heavy traffic of eager users.
`
`0022
`
`

`
`8
`
`1 Human Factors of Interactive Software
`
`Figure 1.3
`
`AutoCAD R13 for Windows. This design environment has multiple windows and
`palettes for an aircraft landing-gear assembly. (Used with permission of AutoDesk,
`San Rafael, CA.)
`
`The rapid growth of interest in user-interface design is international in
`scope. In the United States, the Association for Computing Machinery
`(ACM) Special Interest Group in Computer Human Interaction (SIGCHI)
`had more than 6000 members in 1997. The annual CHI conferences draw
`almost 2500 people. The Usability Professionals Association focuses on com(cid:173)
`mercial approaches, and the Human Factors & Ergonomics Society, the
`American Society for Information Science, and other professional groups
`attend to research on human-computer interaction. Regular conferences in
`Europe, Japan, and elsewhere draw substantial audiences of researchers and
`practitioners. In Europe, the ESPRIT project devotes approximately 150 per(cid:173)
`son-years of effort per year to the topic. In Japan, the Ministry of Interna(cid:173)
`tional Trade and Industry promotes commercially-oriented projects and
`consortia among many companies.
`This chapter gives a broad overview of human-c01nputer interaction from
`practitioner and research perspectives. Specific references cited in the chap(cid:173)
`ter appear on page 33, and a set of general references begins on page 35.
`
`0023
`
`

`
`1.2 Goals of System Engineering
`
`9
`
`Figure 1.4
`
`Realistic textures add to this outdoor setting that leads the player to one of the
`islands making up the world of Riven: The Sequel to MYST (Copyright Cyan, Inc.)
`MYST (1994) and Riven (1997), created by Rand and Robyn Miller, are entrancing
`environments that bridge literary styles with video games. (Used with permission of
`Broderbund, Inc.)
`
`1.2 Goals of System Engineering
`
`The high-level goal of making the user's quality of life better (see Afterword)
`is ilnportant to keep in mind, but designers have 1nore specific goals. Every
`designer wants to build a high-quality interactive system that is admired by
`colleagues, celebrated by users, circulated widely, and imitated frequently.
`Appreciation c01nes not from flmnboyant promises or stylish advertising,
`but rather from inherent quality features that are achieved through thought(cid:173)
`ful planning, sensitivity to user needs, and diligent testing.
`Managers can promote attention to user-interface issues by selection of
`personnel, preparation of schedules and milestones, construction and appli(cid:173)
`cation of guidelines documents, and commihnent to testing. Designers then
`propose multiple design alternatives for consideration, and the leading con(cid:173)
`tenders are subjected to further develop1nent and testing (see Chapters 3 and
`
`0024
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`1 Human Factors of Interactive Software
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