second edition
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`

`CCD ARRAYS, CAMERAS,
`and DISPLAYS
`Second edition
`
`Gerald C. Holst
`
`Copublished by
`
`JCD Publishing
`2932 Cove Trail
`Winter Park, FL 32789
`
`a;
`
`SPIE OpticaL ENGINEERING PRESS
`A Publication of SPIE—The International Society for Optical Engineering
`Bellingham, Washington USA
`
`
`
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`

`Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
`
`Holst, Gerald C.
`CCD arrays, cameras, and displays/ Gerald C. Holst. -- 2nd ed.
`p. cm.
`Includes bibliographical references (p.
`ISBN 0-9640000-4-0 (hardcover)
`1. Charge coupled devices.
`2. Information display systems.
`I. Title
`TK7871.99.C45H65
`621.36'7--de21
`
`) and index.
`
`1998
`
`98-10770
`CIP
`
`Copublished by
`
`JCD Publishing
`2932 Cove Trail
`Winter Park, FL 32789
`Phone: 407/629-5370
`Fax: 407/629-5370
`ISBN: 0-9640000-4-0
`
`SPIE - The International Society for Optical Engineering
`P.O. Box 10
`Bellingham, WA 98227-0010
`Phone: 360/676-3290
`Fax: 360/647-1445
`WWW: http://www.spie.org
`ISBN: 0-8194-2853-1
`
`Notice:
`Reasonable efforts have been madeto publish reliable data and information,
`but the Author and Publishers cannot assumeresponsibility for the validity of
`all materials or the consequences of their use.
`
`Copyright © 1998 Gerald C. Holst
`
`All rights reserved. Nopart of this book may be reproduced in any form by any
`means without written permission from the copyright owner.
`
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`

`The second edition is dedicated to
`
`Emily, Irma, and Deanne
`
`
`
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`

`

`CCD ARRAYS, CAMERAS,
`and DISPLAYS
`Second edition
`
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`

`

`TABLE of CONTENTS
`
`l
`1. INTRODUCTION ...... 0: cece eet tee ee eee ee
`2
`1.1. Solid State Detectors .. 06. ce ee ee ees
`3
`1.2. Imaging System Applications ... 26... eee ee eee ees
`1.2.1. General Imagery .. 2... eee ee eee eee ees 6
`1.2.2. Machine Vision... . 2... 5 eee eee ee es
`7
`1.2.3. Scientific Applications... 26. eee ee ees
`8
`1.2.4. Military Applications
`.. 1... - esse ee eee eee 8
`1.3. Configurations .. 0.0. ee ee eee
`9
`1.4. Image Quality 2... ek ee ee ee eee eee 12
`1.5. Pixels, Datels, Disels, and Resels .....--5 555s s
`0 seus 14
`1.6, References
`6 6k ca ce eek Fe eae Oe ee Oe ee 17
`
`18
`9. RADIOMETRY and PHOTOMETRY ......--- 555+ e eee ees
`4-1. Radiative Transfer
`. 40.04 ce e5 eee ee ee eee 19
`2.2, Planck’s Blackbody Law ...... 5s see eee eens 21
`2.3. Photometry 2. s00 cc ce ee ee ee ee 23
`9.3.1. Units
`. ccc cc ee ee ee ee ee eee ee 25
`2.3.2. Typical Illumination Levels 2... 6650s eee eens 27
`Fb SenTRS gee wysoatece ace
`som eee Se ee Boe Tree ee 29
`2.4.1. Calibration Sources
`....-- 220-000 e ee eeueee 29
`9.4.2. Real SOUTCES 2. cee ee eee ee ee eee nee
`30
`2.5, Camera Formula .....-.-- 0 eee eee ee eee eee 33
`2.6. Normalization ... 2... 00 eee eee ee ee eee 37
`9.7, Normalization Issues ......0- 2-5 ee eee ee ee 39
`2 References: 6 kk eee ie RS Ses ee ee EOE wR 44
`
`3. SOLID STATE ARRAYS 2... ete ee ee te eee ee eee 45
`3.1. Photodetection i 66 seca ee eee ee es 46
`3.1.1. Photogate 2.0.0.2 2 2c cee ee ee ees 47
`4.1.2. Photodiod@:.: 6.65 es ee eee Fk ee ee ee
`47
`3.2, CCD Array Operation .. 0... eee renee enna 47
`3.3. CCD Array Architecture 2... 6. ee ee ee
`58
`3.3.1. Linear ATTuyS 20 ccc ee eee ne ene nee 58
`3.3.2. Full Frame ArrayS 1.6.66 2-0 eee ee eee 59
`3.3.3. Frame Transfer... 6. ccs ee te ee eee 61
`3.3.4. Interline Transfer... 0 ee ee 63
`3.3.5, Progressive Scan 2... - eee eee ees 68
`3.3.6. Time Delay and Integration .......-++++ees055 70
`3.4, Charge Transfer Efficiency ..... 6. esse eee e eens 74
`
`xiii
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`xiv CCD ARRAYS, CAMERAS, and DISPLAYS
`
`78
`3.5, Charge Conversion (Output Structure) ... 2... 0 ee eee eee
`3.6, Dark Current 2... ee ee ee eee 79
`3:9 Dark Pikels
`«6 He bS eee ee Hs Te Harte ek ws
`83
`3.8. Anfibloom Draifi
`i
`i cececssawa ee eee ee eee ie ee ee
`85
`BG OTD!
`ovesciarenece ace ecm we ere Soa eee bie Bee SHUSTER y Eis SH 89
`RTOS CMOS occaya Be BS Hales es te Bw eRe ee HOO
`91
`3.11. Physical Parameters... 0.6 eee eee ee eet ene 93
`3.11.1. Microlenses 1... 00 ee ee ee eee ees ee 93
`3.11.2. Color Filter ArrayS i....00. 06 2 ee eee ee eee 94
`3.11.3. Number of Detectors... . 20... tee eee 97
`3.11.4, Video Chip Size... 0 ee eee 98
`3:93. REfPONCES
`heiece as aw oe aoe Hie eee one
`ewe ee 100
`
`102
`4, ARRAY PERFORMANCE .....- 02-0 etree eee nee nes
`4.4 Sigal 5 oe eee we ee oe eee ee OE Oe ee 103
`4.1.1. Spectral Response 2... ee ee ee ee ee eee
`104
`4.1.2. Responsivity .. 0.0.6 eee eee 111
`4.1.3. Minimum Signal ... 1.26 eee ee ee tee 119
`4.1.4, Maximum Signal ... 1.26.6 eee eee eee 120
`4.1.5. Dynamic Range... 0. ee ee 121
`AmD NGISG <6 ER RE HE OR SRS ES tw Hue ee oR ae
`123
`6:91. SHOUINGIG gece ce ee ee oe ee 127
`4.2.2. Reset Noise 2... ce ee ee eee 127
`4.2.3, On-chip Amplifier Noise... 2... eee eee eee 128
`4.2.4. Off-chip amplifier Noise 2... 6 eee tee eee 130
`4.2.5. Quantization Noise . 0.6... 26 ee ee ee ee 130
`4.2.6. Pattern Noise 2.6. eee ee ees 131
`4.2.7. Photon Tramsfer
`.. 1. eee eee ee ee ee 133
`4.3. Array Signal-to-Noise Ratio... 6-66 eee eee eee ees 139
`4.4, Correlated Double Sampling ... 1... 6 eee eee ee ee es
`141
`4.5. Frame Rates 2... ee Oe ee 142
`4:6, Defects:
`« cians 28 os ew eee eet toe Oe 143
`4.7, References
`.. 0.0... ee ee eee ee eee ee eee 144
`
`146
`S CGAMBRAS: 4 occ esaguww ane sus age oe yn aecsge te roe eee
`5.1. Camera Operation
`..- 6. eee ee ee eee 147
`5.2. Video Formats. 2... e000 i ee ee ek ee ee Oe ee 149
`§,2.1. Video Timing .... 0... eee eee ee ees 151
`5.2.2. Broadcast/Non-broadcast Design ..... 0620 ee eee
`155
`5.2.3. Component/Composite Signals... ..----++eeee> 156
`5.2.4. IRE Units
`. 0... ee ee ee ee ees
`157
`5.2.5, Digital Television... 2.26 ee ee eee ee ees
`159
`
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`TABLE of CONTENTS xv
`
`160
`s
`526° HDTVIATS occ ese eee ee ale HR EN BW ae wre
`5.3. Consumer/Broadcast Cameras... 0-1 ee ee ee ee eee 163
`5.3.1. The Kmee 2... ee ee 164
`§.3.2. Color Correction 2.6 ok ee ee ee 165
`5.3.3. Gamma Compensation... 1... eee ee ee ees
`169
`5.3.4. Aperture Correction «1... see eee eens 172
`5.4. Industrial/Scientific Cameras
`. 2... eee ee es 172
`5.4.1, Analog-to-Digital Converters... . 6-26 sees eee 174
`5.4.2. Intensified Solid State Cameras ... 1.6.62 ee ees
`176
`5.5. References
`.. 0.00 ce ce ee ee ee ees 179
`
`182
`6. CAMERA PERFORMANCE .......--0 6522 eee ee eeeee
`6.1. Nomenclature
`.. 0.0.2 ee ee ee ee eee 183
`6.2, Camera Metrics . sccee eee ee ee a ee eee ee ee 185
`6.2.1. Camera SNR 2... cee ee eee eee 186
`6.2.2. Camera Dynamic Range
`.... 1. +e ee eee ee eee 187
`6.2.3. Maximum Signal .. 0.0 eee ee es 189
`6.2.4. Minimum Signal
`.. 2... eee ee eee 189
`6.3. Intensified CCD Camera
`... 2-0 cee eee eee 195
`6.3.1, ICCD Signal £0 ce ce eee eee eee nee 196
`6.3.2. ICCD Noise .. 0... 2. eee eee eee eae 197
`6:33. JOCTISNR fa o4 ie ee ee cee OR Rowe ere ere eee 198
`GA. ReferenGes
`cis wesw sek wea wea ok ete ee eK Oe ae tee eT 200
`
`201
`7. CRT-BASED DISPLAYS ....-20. 05 ces cae ee ee wees
`71. The ODSELVED coke ee ee ew ee ee ee ee ee 203
`7.2. CRT Overview ..... 02 e ce eee eee ee eee 205
`7.2.1. Monochrome Displays. .....- 00+ see e eee eens
`207
`72:2; Color Display: <.-6:-e.eceeccce ge ne ees Be 207
`Fe ITT cn ee ete me AAD ite Wk we WW A RE 210
`7.3. Spot Size {64 05 (4 ON aa awe Re A 210
`7.4. Disels ... 0.00 ee ce eee eee eee tenes 213
`75. Resolution ....-..0 0+ ee se ene e eee ee eee eee 218
`7.5.1. Vertical Resolution. ... 6-6-6 eee eee eee 219
`7.5.2. Theoretical Horizontal Resolution. ........+5+5-+ 219
`7.5.3. TV Limiting Resolution... 6.6 eee eee eee eee 220
`9-5 -A PATE secccce saree aie oie HO we oe ie ee eee ee ee 221
`7.6. Addressability .. 2.0.00 ccc u eee ee een ee eee 222
`77; Shades OF Gray 060 80s ia wie Ee ee ne ae Oe 227
`7.8. Character Recognition .... 2... eevee eee eens 227
`7.9. Contrast... ec ee eee 225
`710, ReferenceS
`.. 10 a ee a ee ee ee ee ee 230
`
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`SOLID STATE ARRAYS 93
`
`attractive feature for man-portable, battery-operated devices. It appears at this
`time, CMOSwill compete with CCDsin the general video marketplace where
`weight, size, and power consumption are factors.
`
`3.11. PHYSICAL PARAMETERS
`
`All detector arrays are fabricated for specific applications. Microlenses are
`used to increase the optical fill factor. Color filter arrays employ filters that are
`placed over
`the detectors to create specific spectral
`responses that
`lend
`themselves to color imagery. For general video applications, the number of
`detectors is matched to the video standard to maximize bandwidth and image
`sharpness. The overall array size follows the convention used with vidicons.
`
`3.11.1. MICROLENSES
`
`Optical fill factor may be less than 100% due to manufacturing constraints
`in full transfer devices. In interline devices, the shielded vertical transfer register
`can reduce the fill factor to less than 20%. Microlens assemblies (also called
`microlenticular arrays or lenslet arrays) increase the effective optical fill-factor
`(Figure 3-42). But it may not reach 100% due to slight misalignment of the
`microlens assembly, imperfections in the microlens itself, nonsymmetric shielded
`areas, and transmission losses. As shown by the camera formula (Equation 2-16,
`page 35), the outputis directly proportional to the detector area. Increasing the
`optical fill factor with a microlens assembly increases the effective detector size
`and, therefore, the output voltage.
`
`The photosensitive area is below the gate structure and the ability to collect
`the light depends upon gate thickness. The cone oflight reaching the microlens
`depends upon the f-number of the primary camera lens. Figure 3-42 illustrates
`nearly parallel rays falling on the microlens. This case is encountered with high
`f-number lens systems. Low f-number primary camera lenses increase the cone
`angle and the effective fill-factor decreases with decreasing f-number.’’
`Microlenses are optimized for most practical f-numbers. As the array size
`grows, off-axis detectors do not obtain the same benefit as on-axis detectors.”
`
`Hyper-HADis a Sony trademark whichindicates the presence of a microlens
`assembly over a hole accumulation diode. While many camera manufacturers
`use the Hyper-HAD detectors,
`they do not identify the detector by Sony's
`trademark. This leads the user to believe that there are many different detectors
`and hence many different cameras on the market.
`
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`94 CCD ARRAYS, CAMERAS, and DISPLAYS
`
`(a)
`
`A
`
`(a) With no
`Figure 3-42. Optical effect of a microlens assembly.
`microlens, a significant amount of photonflux is not detected. (b) The
`microlens assembly can imagenearly all the flux onto the detector when
`a high f-numberlens is used. These lenslets can either be grown on the
`array during the fabrication process or manufactured out of a material
`such as quartz and placed on the array surface during packaging.
`
`3.11.2. COLOR FILTER ARRAYS
`
`The subjective sensation of color can be created from three primary colors.
`By adjusting the intensity of each primary (additive mixing), a full gamut
`(rainbow) of colors is experienced. This approach is used onall color displays.
`They have red, green, and blue phosphors that, when appropriately excited,
`produce a wide spectrum of perceived colors. The CIE committee standardized
`a color perception model for the human observerin 1931. The literature” is rich
`with visual data that form the basis for color camera design.
`
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`SOLID STATE ARRAYS 95
`
`The "color" signals sent to the display must be generated by three detectors,
`each sensitive to a primary or its complement. The primary additive colors are
`red, green, and blue (R, G, B) and their complementary colors are yellow, cyan
`and magenta (Ye, Cy, Mg). For high quality color imagery,
`three separate
`detectors (discussed in Section 5.3.3., Color Correction) are used whereas for
`consumer applications, a single array is used. The detectors are covered with
`different filters that, with the detector response, can approximate the primaries
`or their complements (Figure 3-43). A single array with filters is called a color
`filter array (CFA).
`
`
`
` RelativeResponse
`
`Response
`
`
`
`
`
`Relative
`
`Wavelength (um)
`
`(b)
`
`Figure 3-43. Desired spectral response for the three primaries and their
`complements, (a) The primaries and (b) their complements.
`
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`96 CCD ARRAYS, CAMERAS, and DISPLAYS
`
`While CFAscan havefilters with the appropriate spectral transmittance to
`create the primaries, it is more efficient to create the complementary colors.
`Complementary filters have higher transmittances than the primary filters. The
`luminance channel
`is identical to the green channel and is often labeled Y.
`"White" (no color filter) is represented by W=R+G+B.
`
`A linear set of equations relates the primaries to their complements. These
`equations are employed (called matrixing) in cameras to provide either or both
`output formats. Matrixing can convert RGB into other color coordinates:
`Ye=- R+G=-=W-B
`
`Mg - R+B=-W-G
`
`(3-12)
`
`Cy-G+B-W-R.
`The arrangement of the color filters for a single array system is either a
`stripe or a mosaic pattern (Figure 3-44). The precise layout of the mosaic varies
`by manufacturer. One basic CFA patent” was granted to Bryce E. Bayer at
`Eastman Kodak in 1976.
`
`
`
`er|veer]ve
`
`er[veer]ve
`
`Mosaics
`
`Figure 3-44, Representative stripe and mosaic arrays. Although shown
`as a full frame device for clarity, they typically are interline transfer
`devices. The layout depends upon the manufacturer’s philosophy and
`cleverness in reducing color aliasing.
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`SOLID STATE ARRAYS 97
`
`In many sensors, the number of detectors devoted to each coloris different.
`The basic reason is that the human visual system (HVS) derives its detail
`information primarily from the green portion of the spectrum. That
`is,
`luminance differences are associated with green whereas color perception is
`associated with red and blue. The HVS requires only moderate amounts of red
`and blue to perceive color. Thus, many sensors have twice as many green as
`either red or blue detector elements. An array that has 768 horizontal elements
`may devote 384 to green, 192 to red, and 192 to blue. This results in an unequal
`sampling of the colors. A birefringent crystal (discussed in Section 10.3.4.,
`Optical Anti-alias Filter), inserted between the lens and the array, accommodates
`the different sampling rates (discussed in Section 8.3.2., Detector Array Nyquist
`Frequency). The video signal from the CFA is embedded in the architecture of
`the CFA. The color video from a single chip CFA must be decoded
`(unscrambled) to produce usable R, G, and B signals.
`
`3.11.3. NUMBER OF DETECTORS
`
`Each detector array is designed for a specific application (discussed in
`Section 5.2.2., Broadcast/Non-Broadcast Design) The EIA 170 video standard
`supports 485 lines (discussed in Section 5.2.1., Video Timing). However, one
`line is split between the even and odd fields so that
`there are only 484
`continuouslines. Thus detector arrays designed for ETA 170 compatibility tend
`to have 484 detectors in the-Vvertical direction. For convenience, this has been
`reduced to 480 detectors. Image processing algorithms are more efficient with
`square pixels. With a 4:3 aspect ratio, the desired numberof detectors is 640 x
`480. Less expensive arrays will have a submultiple (for easy interpolation) such
`as 320 x 240,
`
`For video applications, several rows or columns are devoted to dark current
`and for light leakage. Therefore an array may be 650 x 492 but
`the light
`sensitive part may be 640 x 480.
`It
`is manufacturer dependent whether to
`specify the array size by the number of active pixels or the total number of
`pixels (which includes the dark pixels).
`
`images. To avoid beat
`frequencies are very obvious in color
`Beat
`frequencies,
`the color pixel rate should be a multiple of the chrominance
`subcarrier frequency (3.579545 MHz), This results in arrays that contain 384,
`576, or 768 horizontal detectors. While CFAs are designed for NTSC operation,
`the same chip can be used for monochrome video without the CFA. Therefore,
`many monochromearrays also contain 384, 576, or 768 horizontal detectors.
`These arrays do not have square pixels. But, from a manufacturing point-of-
`view, this reduces the inventory of arrays offered.
`
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`98 CCD ARRAYS, CAMERAS, and DISPLAYS
`
`Scientific array size tends to a power of 2 (e.g., 512 x 512, 1024 x 1024)
`for easy image processing. There is a perception that "bigger is better" both in
`terms of array size and dynamic range. Arrays may reach 8192 x 8192 with a
`dynamic range of 16 bits. This array requires (8192)(8192)(16) or 1.07 Gbits
`of storage for each image. Image compression schemes may be required if
`storage space is limited. The user of these arrays must decide which images are
`significant and through data reduction algorithms, store only those that have
`value. Otherwise, he will be overwhelmed with mountains of data.
`
`While large format arrays offer the highest resolution, their use is hampered
`by readoutrate limitations. For example, consumer camcorder systemsoperating
`at 30 frames/s have a data rate of about 10 Mpixels/s. An array with 5120 x
`5120 elements operating at 30 frames/s has a data rate of about 768 Mpixels/s.
`Large arrays can reduce readout rates by having multiple parallel ports servicing
`subarrays. Each subarray requires separate vertical and horizontal clock signals.
`The tradeoff is frame rate (speed) versus numberof parallel ports (complexity
`of CCD design) and interfacing with downstream electronics. Because each
`subarray is serviced by different on-chip and off-chip amplifiers, the displayed
`image of the subarrays may vary in contrast andlevel. This is due to differences
`in amplifier gains and level adjustments.
`
`3.11.4. VIDEO CHIP SIZE
`
`television
`Vidicon vacuum tubes were originally used for professional
`applications. These were specified by the tube diameter. To minimize distortion
`and nonuniformities within the tube,
`the recommended* image size was
`considerablyless than the overall tube diameter. When CCDsreplaced the tubes,
`the CCD industry maintained the image sizes but continued to use the tube
`format nomenclature (Table 3-2).
`
`Table 3-2
`ARRAYSIZE for STANDARD FORMATS
`
`STANDARDIZED ARRAY SIZE
`(A x V)
`
`ARRAY
`DIAGONAL
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`rTee
`Teaoeee
`
`
`
`
`4.3mm * 3.6 mm
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`er
`
`SOLID STATE ARRAYS 99
`
`Although each manufacturer supplies a slightly different array size and pixel
`size, nominal sizes for a 768 x 480 array are given in Table 3-3. With interline
`transfer devices, approximately one-half of the pixel width is devoted to the
`shielded vertical transfer register. That is, the detector active width is one-half
`of the pixel width. Thus the active area of the pixel is rectangular in interline
`transfer devices. This asymmetry does not appear to affect image quality in
`consumer video products significantly.
`
`Table 3-3
`NOMINALPIXEL SIZE for a 768 x 480 ARRAY
`Sizes vary by manufacturer. Detector sizes are smaller.
`
`FORMAT
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`a
`(H x V)
`
`
`
`The decrease in optical format is related to cost. The price of CCD arrays
`is mainly determined by the cost of processing semiconductor wafers. As the
`chip size decreases, more devices can be put on a single wafer and this lowers
`the price of each individual device. The trend of going to smaller devices will
`probably continue as long as the optical and electrical performance of the
`imagers does not change. However, smaller pixels reduce the charge well size.
`For a fixed flux level and lens f-number,
`the smaller arrays have reduced
`sensitivity.
`
`Smaller chips make for smaller cameras. However, to maintain resolution,
`pixels can only be made so small. Here, the tradeoff is among pixel size, optical
`focal length, and overall chip size. Further unless the lens f-number is reduced
`as the chip size is reduced, the system will move from being detector-limited to
`optically-limited (discussed in Section 10.4., Optical-Detector Subsystem). As
`this happens, the system MTF will change and smaller detectors will provide a
`less sharp image.
`
`Ex.1035 / Page 15 of 16
`TESLA, INC.Page 15 of 16
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`Ex.1035 / Page 15 of 16
`TESLA, INC.Page 15 of 16
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`

`

`This completely revised book includes
`>» CCDandintensified CCD systems
`» CID and CMOStechnology
`> Signal-to-noise ratio
`>» Minimumillumination definitions
`
`TESLA,INC.Page 16 of 16
`
`Topics include
`
`Full-frame
`Frame transfer
`Progressive scan
`Interline transfer
`Oo
`RECNrnay
`Photometry
`
`second edition
`
`Sampling and aliasing
`Dark current
`Antibloom drain
`Seconemo
`Noise analysis
`PPEMmerlemreliereeclaoye
`Minimumresolvable contrast
`
`PUM esselt Oem si):
`Sampling, Aliasing, and Data Fidelity
`Electro-Optical Imaging System Performance
`Testing and Evaluation of Infrared Imaging Systems
`
`VS
`
`second edition
`
`JCD Publishing
`2932 Cove Trail
`Winter Park, FL 32789
`isi btOeeee
`
`SPIE PRESS
`PO Box 10
`Bellingham, WA 98227
`ISBN: 0-81294-2853-1
`
`Ex.1035 / Page 16 of 16
`
`Ex.1035 / Page 16 of 16
`TESLA, INC.Page 16 of 16
`
`