Wellington Sears
`Handbook of
`Industrial Textiles
`
`/
`
`Sabit Adanur, Ph.D.
`
`JOHNSTON INDUSTRIES GROUP
`
`Skechers EX1062
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`
`

`

`Wellington Sears
`Handbook of
`Industrial Textiles
`
`Sabit Adanur, B.S., M.S., Ph.D.
`
`Ass istant Professor, Department of Textile Engineering
`Auburn University, Alabama, U.S.A.
`
`TECHNOMIC
`^PUBLISHING CO., INCj
`
`T LANCASTER - BASEL
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`

`

`Published in the Western Hemisphere by
`Technomic Publishing Company, Inc.
`851 New Holland Avenue, Box 3535
`Lancaster, Pennsylvania 17604 U.S.A.
`
`Distributed in the Rest cf the World by
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`
`Copyright © 1995 by Wellington Sears Company
`All rights reserved
`
`No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a
`retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means,
`electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise,
`without the prior written permission of Wellington Sears Company.
`
`Printed in the United States of America
`10 987654321
`
`Main entry under title:
`Wellington Sears Handbook of Industrial Textiles
`
`Library of Congress Catalog Card No. 95-61229
`ISBN No. 1-56676-340-1
`
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`4.5
`Knitting
`
`R. P. WALKER
`S. ADANUR
`
`1. INTRODUCTION
`
`As defined earlier, knitting involves the inter­
`looping of one yam system into continuously
`connecting vertical columns (wales) and hori­
`zontal rows (courses) of loops to form a knitted
`fabric structure. There are two basic types of knit
`structures as shown in Figure 4.1: weft knit and
`warp knit. Figure 4.46 shows a circular weft
`knitting machine.
`In weft knitting, the yam loops are formed
`across the fabric width, i.e., in the course or weft
`direction of the fabric. In warp knitting, the loops
`are formed along the fabric length, i.e., in the
`wale or warp direction of the cloth. In both
`knitting systems the fabric is delivered in the
`wale direction. Special needles are used to form
`the yarn loops as showninFigure4.47. The latch
`needle is the most common type in use for weft
`knitted fabrics and the compound needle is used
`mostly in warp knitting. Spring beard needles are
`becoming obsolete.
`The basis of knit fabric construction being the
`continuing intersecting of loops, any failure of a
`loop yam will cause a progressive destruction of
`the loop sequence and a run occurs. Thus, knit­
`ting yams must be of good quality in order that
`yarn failures be kept at a minimum. Other impor­
`tant geometrical definitions relating the knit
`structures are as follows:
`
`• count: total number of wales and courses
`per unit area of the fabric
`• gauge: the number of needles per unit
`width (the fineness or coarseness of the
`fabric)
`• stitch: the loop formed at each needle
`
`(the basic repeating unit of knit fabric
`structure)
`• technical face: the side of the fabric
`where the loops are pulled toward the
`viewer
`• technical back: the side of the fabric
`where the loops are pulled away from the
`viewer
`
`Industrial application areas of knit structures
`include medical products such as artificial
`arteries, bandages, casts, and surgical gauze and
`flexible composites. Knit fabrics are used as
`reinforcing base for resins used in cars, boats,
`and motorcycle helmets.
`
`2. WEFT KNITTING
`
`Weft knit goods are made by feeding a multiple
`number of ends into the machine. Each loop is
`progressively made by the needle or needles.
`Figure 4.48 shows the loop forming process with
`a latch needle. The previously formed yam loop
`actually becomes an element of the knitting
`process with the latch needle. This is why the
`latch needle is referred to as the “self-acting”
`needle. As the needle is caused to slide through
`the previous yarn loop, the loop causes the
`swiveled latch to open, exposing the open hook
`(head) of the needle. The newly selected yam can
`now be guided and fed to the needle. If a simple
`knitted loop is to be formed, the previous loop
`(the one which opened the latch) must slide to a
`point on the needle stem allowing it to clear the
`latch. Having the needle reach this clearing posi­
`tion allows a reversal of the sliding action which
`
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`128
`
`FABRIC MANUFACTURING
`
`FIGURE 4.46 Circular weft knitting machine.
`
`in turn pulls down on the new yam and uses the
`previous yarn loop to close the latch trapping the
`new yam inside the hook. The previous loop is
`now in a position to ride over the outside of the
`latch and be cast off the needle head, thus becom­
`ing a part of the fabric while the new yam loop
`is pulled through the previous loop.
`Depending on the structure in weft knitting,
`several types of knitting stitches are used includ­
`
`ing plain [Figure 4.1(c)], tuck, purl (reverse),
`and float (miss) stitch which are shown in Figure
`4.49. The plain stitch fabric has all of its loops
`drawn through to the same side of the fabric. The
`plain fabric has a very smooth face and a rough
`back. Other stitches produce different effects
`depending on the arrangement of the loops. Spe­
`cial stitches are also available to prevent runs.
`Weft knitting machines may be either flat or
`
`latch
`
`compound
`
`spring beard
`
`FIGURE 4.47 Needle types used in knitting.
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`4.5 Knitting 129
`
`latch opening
`
`clearing and
`yarn feeding
`
`latch closing
`
`cast-off and
`loop formation
`
`FIGURE 4.48 Loop forming on a latch needle.
`
`circular, the former knitting a flat single layer of
`fabric, the latter knitting a continuous tube. No
`matter which machine configuration is used,
`weft knit manufacturing involves the same fun­
`damental functions:
`
`• yam selection and feeding
`• needle knitting action
`• fabric control during knitting
`• needle selection
`• fabric take-up and collection
`
`There are several devices added to weft knit­
`ting machinery for improving quality of the
`product and/or operation of the process. A par­
`tial list of these added features includes:
`
`• yam break sensors
`• fabric hole detectors
`• needle “closed latch” sensors
`• air blowing systems to keep needles clear
`of lint
`• centralized lubrication dispensing unit
`• computer interfaces for production
`monitoring
`• computer interfaces for pattern entry
`• computer aided design systems
`
`Knit fabrics can be classified as single knits
`and double knits. Single weft knits have one layer
`of loops formed with one yam system. Three
`major types of single weft knits are jersey, rib and
`purl structures. Double knits have two insepa-
`
`purl (reverse) stitch
`
`float (miss) stitch
`
`tuck stitch
`
`FIGURE 4.49 Types of stitching in weft knitting.
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`130 FABRIC MANUFACTURING
`
`rable layers of loops. Each yam forms loops that
`appear on both faces of the fabric. Two major
`types of double knits are rib double knit and
`interlock double knit.
`The major characteristics of weft knit fabrics
`are as follows:
`
`• can be either manufactured as net-shape
`or cut to shape and sewn
`• form a run the wale direction if a yarn
`breaks
`• have good stretch especially in the course
`direction
`• do not ravel
`• do not wrinkle easily and have good
`recovery from wrinkling and folding
`
`3. WARP KNITTING
`
`Warp knit fabrics are manufactured by prepar­
`ing the equivalent of a warp beam containing
`several hundred ends. Each end passes through
`its own needle and is formed into loops which
`intersect with adjacent loops. Thus, a flat looped
`fabric is knitted using only “warp” yams
`without the necessity of “filling” yams being
`interwoven.
`The two major types of warp knits are tricot
`and Raschel. Based on the number of yams and
`guide bars used, tricot knits are identified as
`single [FiguJre 4.1(d)], two (Figure 4.50), three
`and four (or more) bar tricots. Raschel knitting
`is suitable for making highly patterned, lacy,
`crocheted or. specialty knits (Figure 4.51). In
`general, Raschel machines are used for the
`production of knit structures for industrial ap­
`plications .For increased structural support in the
`filling direction, additional filling yams can be
`inserted as shown in Figure 4.52.
`Figure 4.53 shows a schematic of a warp knit­
`ting machine. The knitting elements required for
`a warp knitting machine include:
`
`• needles arranged in one or more solid
`bar to function as a unit (called a needle
`bar)
`• yam guides, one for each warp yarn,
`arranged in solid bars, one for each
`different warp, to function as a unit
`(called guide bars)
`
`FIGURE 4.50 A two-bar tricot (courtesy of Noyes Publi­
`cations).
`
`FIGURE 4.51 Simple Raschel crochet knit (courtesy of
`Noyes Publications).
`
`FIGURE 4.52 Weftinserted warp knit structure (courtesy
`of Karl Mayer).
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`4.5 Knitting 131
`
`plate, over which the old loops are
`‘ ‘ knocked-over,’ ’ are used
`
`Stitch formation on warp knit machines differs
`from weft knitting in that a complete course of
`loops is formed by one cycle of the needle bar(s)
`rather than individually acting needles forming
`loops within a course.
`It is estimated that 85% of the knit structures
`used directly or as composites in the field of
`industrial textiles are warp knits.
`Open and closed warp knit structures are used
`in protection from insects, sun protection, har­
`vesting nets and heavy fishing nets.
`Three dimensional warp knit structures such
`as sandwich structures are made on machines
`with two separate needle bars working in.de-
`pendently of each other and forming a separate
`fabric on each side. Another fully threaded guide
`bar fills the sandwich by overlapping both needle
`bars. Knit fabrics can also be coated and molded
`into three-dimensional honeycomb structures.
`Mono- and multi-axial knit structures are
`produced by inserting layers of straight rein­
`forcement yams into the knit construction. These
`structures are also called directionally oriented
`
`fabric take-down
`FIGURE 4.53 Schematic of a warp knitting machine
`(courtesy of Noyes Publications).
`
`• sinkers arranged in a solid bar to function
`as a unit (called a sinker bar)
`• presser bar functioning on spring beard
`needle bars only
`• pattern chains or cams to control the
`side-to-side motion of guide bars
`• in Raschel knitting, over the self-acting
`latch needle, no pressure bar is needed;
`in its place, a latch guard and a face
`
`FIGURE 4.54 No-crimp fabric structure (courtesy of Tech Textiles).
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`132 FABRIC MANUFACTURING
`
`structures (DOS) or no-crimp fabrics. The rein­
`forcement fibers can be oriented at various direc­
`tions including 0°, 90°, 45°, etc., as shown in
`Figure 4.54. Some of these structures are used
`for composite reinforcement (Chapter 7.0).
`
`4. KNIT FABRIC CHARACTERISTICS
`
`The basic knit structures have the following
`general characteristics:
`
`• High extendibility is seen.
`• elastic recovery: Knit fabrics recover well
`from deformation since the loops attempt
`to return to their original position.
`• shape retention: When the loops do not
`recover from deformation, the fabric
`stretches out of shape or it bags.
`• Knits generally crease or wrinkle less
`than woven fabrics since the loops act as
`
`hinges (which is a problem when crease
`is needed).
`• Relaxation shrinkage of knit fabrics can
`be high, especially if the fibers are
`hydrophilic.
`• Pliability and form-fitting due to the loop
`structure and to the low twist in some
`weft knit yams.
`• Pilling and snagging due to ease of
`catching a loop and pulling it to the
`fabric surface.
`• insulative ability and air permeability:
`Knit fabrics, which are open structures,
`are ideally suited for providing thermal
`insulation in still air conditions. Knit
`structure contributes a desirable cooling
`effect in summer and a chilling effect in
`winter due to wind.
`• running or laddering: Knit fabrics may
`17m or ladder if a yam in the structure is
`broken.
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`FIBER PROPERTIES AND TECHNOLOGY
`
`17.0
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`17.1
`Fiber Properties and Technology
`
`S. ADANUR
`
`The major properties of textile fibers that have
`important industrial textile usage are included
`in this chapter. There are many synthetic fibers
`of the same generic class, manufactured by dif­
`ferent companies. For those fibers which are
`reasonably well known or widely used, proper­
`ties are listed generically and by trade names.
`Fibers with lesser known trade names are
`grouped under their proper generic class, with
`ranges of values being given wherever possible.
`The continual introduction of new man-made
`fibers makes it a genuinely impossible task to
`present a tabulation which will remain up-to-
`date for any reasonable length of time. Fiber
`names, types, and properties are constantly
`changing. Therefore, caution should be exer­
`cised in using the numerical data presented in
`the following tables. This chapter also discusses
`the significance of fiber properties as they in­
`fluence the performance characteristics of yams
`and fabrics.
`Appendix 4 lists the characteristics, industrial
`uses and manufacturers of generic man-made fi­
`bers and trade names. Figure 17.1 shows longi­
`tudinal and cross-sectiohal photographs of
`selected industrial fibers.
`
`1. REFRACTIVE INDEX
`
`The refractive index (ri) of a substance is
`defined as the ratio of the velocity of light in a
`vacuum to the velocity of light through the
`substance. Because of the molecular orientation
`within fibers, the speed of light along the fiber
`axis is usually different from that transverse to
`the fiber axis. The greater the amount of orien­
`tation and degree of crystallinity, the greater
`will be the difference between the refractive in­
`
`dices which are parallel with, and transverse to,
`the fiber axis. The difference is called the “bire­
`fringence.” For all fibers except Saran® the par­
`allel index is greater than the transverse in­
`dex nu, and so the birefringence is always
`positive. Refractive indices are usdful for identi­
`fying fibers and, in research, indicating the
`nature of molecular order in experimental
`fibers. While refractive index may influence
`fiber luster, the effect of fiber crimp and the
`state of aggregation of fibers in yams and yams
`in febrics are of far greater significance in ob­
`taining or preventing fabric luster. Except as it
`is a measure of molecular order, which in turn
`may influence the tensile and elastic properties
`of fibers, refractive index is of no special signif­
`icance in the industrial textile picture. Ihble 17.1
`lists refractive indices and birefringences of
`natural and man-made fibers.
`
`2. DENSITY (SPECIFIC GRAVITY)
`OF FIBERS
`
`Table 17.2 lists densities of fibers. Density is
`defined as the ratio of a substance’s unit volume
`weight to that of water at 4°C.
`
`3. FIBER FINENESS AND DIAMETERS
`
`Table 17.3 lists fiber diameters (jun) based on
`filament deniers for selected fibers.
`/■
`
`4. FIBER STRENGTH AND TENACITY
`
`While it might be desirable to catalog the ab­
`solute breaking strengths of individual fibers,
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`Name
`Asterisk denotes
`trademark
`Polyester
`
`Photomicrographs
`Cross section, 500X
`Longitudinal, 250X
`
`*A.C.E.
`♦Compel
`Allied
`
`* Dacron
`Du Pont
`
`*Fortrel
`Wellman
`
`4DG
`Eastman
`
`♦Tairilin
`Nan Ya Plastics Corp.,
`America
`
`♦Trevira
`Hoechst Celanese
`
`FIGURE 17.1 Photomicrographs of man-made fibers (courtesy of McLean Hunter Publishing Co.).
`
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`Photomicrographs
`Cross section, 500X
`Longitudinal, 250X
`
`Name
`Asterisk denotes
`trademark
`Carbon
`
`Nylon
`
`*Thornel
`Amoco
`
`Nylon 6
`
`Lyocell
`
`Rayon
`
`Nylon 6,6
`
`* Tencel
`Courtaulds
`
`* Fibre
`Courtaulds
`
`Cuprammonium
`
`FIGURE 17.1 (continued) Photomicrographs of man-made fibers (courtesy of McLean Hunter Publishing Co.).
`
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`Name
`Asterisk denotes
`trademark
`
`Photomicrographs
`Cross section, 500X
`Longitudinal, 250X
`
`Acetate
`
`Sulfar
`
`Acrylic
`
`Rayon
`North American
`Rayon Corp.
`
`*Saran
`Pittsfield Weaving
`
`Acetate
`
`*Ryton
`Amoco
`(Licensed by Phillips)
`
`* Acrilan
`Monsanto
`
`"Creslan
`"MicroSupreme
`Cytec
`
`FIGURE 17.1 (continued) Photomicrographs of man-made fibers (courtesy of McLean Hunter Publishing Co.).
`
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`Photomicrographs
`Cross section, 500X
`Longitudinal, 250X
`
`Name
`Asterisk denotes-
`trademark
`Modacrylic
`
`* SEF
`Monsanto
`
`Olefin
`
`Polyethylene
`Hercules
`
`* Herculon
`Hercules
`
`*Marvess
`*Alpha
`Amoco
`
`*Essera,
`*Marquesa Lana,
`‘Ration III
`Amoco
`
`‘Spectra 900
`‘Spectra 1000
`Allied
`
`FIGURE 17.1 (continued) Photomicrographs of man-made fibers (courtesy of McLean Hunter Publishing Co.).
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`Name
`Asterisk denotes-
`trademark
`
`Photomicrographs
`Cross section, 500X
`Longitudinal, 250X
`
`Tibrilon
`Synthetic Industries
`
`Spandex
`
`*Glospan/
`Cleerspan, S-85
`Globe
`
`Glass
`
`Aramid
`
`* Lycra
`Du Pont
`
`Glass
`
`* Kevlar
`Du Pont
`
`FIGURE 17.1 (continued) Photomicrographs of man-made fibers (courtesy of McLean Hunter Publishing Co.).
`
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`Name
`Asterisk denotes
`trademark
`
`Photomicrographs
`Cross section, 500X
`Longitudinal, 250X
`
`* Nomex
`Du Pont
`
`Fluorocarbon
`
`* Gore-Tex
`W. L. Gore
`
`* Teflon
`Du Pont
`
`Polybenzimidazole
`
`PBI
`Hoechst Celanese
`
`FIGURE 17.1 (continued) Photomicrographs of man-made fibers (courtesy of McLean Hunter Publishing Co.).
`
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`TABLE 17.1 Refractive Indices and Birefringences of Fibers ([1], Fiber Manufacturers’ Data).
`
`Fiber
`
`Parallel (ne)
`
`Transverse (nJ
`
`Refractive Index
`
`Acetate
`Acrylic
`Aramid
`Nomex®
`Kevlar®
`Asbestos
`Cotton, raw
`Cotton, mercerized
`Fluorocarbon
`Glass
`Modacrylic
`Novoloid
`Nylon
`Nylon 6
`Nylon 6,6
`Nytril
`Olefin
`Polyethylene
`Polypropylene
`Polycarbonate
`Polyester
`Dacron®
`Kodel®
`Cuprammonium rayon
`Viscose rayon
`Saran
`Silk <
`Spandex
`Triacetate
`Vinal
`Vinyon (PVC)
`Wool
`
`1.479
`1.525
`
`1.790
`2.322
`1.5-1.57
`1.580
`1.57
`1.37
`1.547
`1.536
`1.650
`
`1.568
`1.582
`1.484
`
`1.556
`1.530
`1.626
`
`1.710
`1.632
`1.548
`1.547
`1.603
`1.591
`1.5
`1.472
`1.543
`1.541
`1.556
`
`1.477
`1.520
`
`1.662
`1.637
`1.49
`1.533
`1.52
`—
`1.547
`1.531
`1.648
`
`1.515
`1.519
`1.476
`
`1.512
`1.496
`1.566
`
`1.535
`1.534
`1.527
`1.521
`1.611
`1.538
`—
`1.471
`1.513
`1.536
`1.547
`
`Birefringence
`(ne - nJ
`
`0.002
`0.004
`
`0.128
`0.685
`0.01-0.08
`0.047
`0.05
`__
`0.000
`0.005
`0.002
`
`0.053
`0.063
`0.008
`
`0.044
`0.034
`0.060
`
`0.175
`0.098
`0.021
`0.026
`-0.008
`0.053
`—
`0.001
`0.030
`0.005
`0.009
`
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`TABLE 17.2 Density of Fibers [1,2].
`
`Fiber
`
`Polyester
`ACE®
`Compel®
`Dacron®
`Fortrel®
`Tairilin*
`Trevira®
`Thomel® carbon
`High strength
`High modulus
`Ultra-high modulus
`Nylon 6
`Nylon 6,6
`Tencel® lyocell
`Viscose rayon
`Cuprammonium rayon
`Saran
`Acetate
`Ryton® sulfar
`Acrylic
`Modacrylic
`Nytril
`Polyethylene, low density
`Polyethylene, high density
`Polypropylene
`Spectra® olefin
`Lycra® spandex
`E-glass, single filament
`S-glass, single filament
`Glass, multifilament
`Aramid
`Kevlar®
`Nomex®
`Fluorocarbon
`Gore-Tex®
`Teflon®
`Polybenzimidazole
`Asbestos
`Flax
`Cotton
`Novoloid
`Polycarbonate
`Silk
`Vinyon (PVC)
`Wool
`
`Density
`(mg/mm3)
`
`1.38
`1.38
`1.34-1.39
`1.38
`1.38
`1.38
`
`1.77
`1.77
`1.96
`1.14
`1.13-1.14
`1.56
`1.52
`1.53
`1.62-1.75
`1.32
`1.37
`1.17
`1.35
`1.20
`0.92
`0.95
`0.90
`0.97
`1.2
`2.54-2.69
`2.48-2.49
`2.5
`
`1.44
`1.38
`
`0.8-2.2
`2.1
`1.43
`2.1-2.8
`1.54
`1.54
`1.28
`1.21
`1.35
`1.40
`1.31
`
`cross-sectional shapes and areas of fibers can
`vary widely. When subjected to a tensile force,
`the total strength of a fiber is dependent upon
`both its intrinsic ability to remain intact and
`upon its dimensions. The absolute value of a
`
`17.1 Fiber Properties and Technology 563
`
`fiber’s strength may be meaningless until it is
`related to its cross-sectional area or its linear
`density, i.e., weight per unit length. As is the
`custom with all engineering materials, fiber
`breaking strengths can be listed on a pounds per
`square inch (psi) basis. More commonly, how­
`ever, the textile trade uses the term “tenacity” to
`describe strength on a grams per denier (gpd)
`basis. This is because it is easier to determine a
`fiber’s or yarn’s weight per length than its weight
`per cross-sectional area, because yam weight is
`an important textile physical and economic fac­
`tor. Since denier is based upon weight per unit
`length, it is obvious that tenacity is influenced
`by the specific gravity of the fiber, while
`strength per unit area is not. The relationship
`between these properties is:
`
`i-
`tensile strength (lb per sq. in. or psi)
`
`i
`
`= 12,800 x tenacity (grams per denier or gpd)
`
`x specific gravity
`
`(17.1)
`
`In Table 17.4 tensile strengths are listed in psi
`and grams per denier for various fibers. The
`relationship between tex and denier is:
`
`tex =
`
`denier
`9
`
`(17.2)
`
`Textile fibers are relatively light, therefore
`they can be highly efficient on a strength-to-
`weight ratio basis. High tenacity nylon, for ex­
`ample, with a specific gravity of 1.14 may have
`a tenacity of 9 grams per denier (81 grams per
`tex) as compared with a high strength steel
`(500,000 psi) or about 3.5 gpd. On a cross-
`sectional area basis, high tenacity nylon has a
`strength exceeding 100,000 psi.
`While textile fibers may have high tenacities,
`often the corresponding strength of the textile
`fabric is disproportionately lowered, due to the
`inefficient translation of fiber strength into yarn
`strength and yam strength into fabric strength.
`This is particularly true with staple fibers.
`Because of non-uniform fiber lengths, interfiber
`slippage, random fiber orientation within the
`yarn, and the helical path of fibers due to yarn
`
`Skechers EX1062
`Skechers v Nike
`
`

`

`564 FIBER PROPERTIES AND TECHNOLOGY
`
`TABLE 17.3 Fiber Diameters of Various Textile Fibers [3].
`
`Denier
`
`Viscose Rayon
`
`Acetate and Vinyon
`
`Nylon
`
`Polyester
`
`Olefin
`
`1
`2
`3
`4
`5
`6
`7
`8
`9
`10
`12
`14
`16
`18
`20
`
`9.6
`13.6
`16.7
`19.3
`21.6
`23.6
`25.5
`27.3
`28.9
`30.5
`33.4
`36.1
`38.6
`40.9
`43.1
`
`10.3
`14.5
`17.8
`20.6
`23.0
`25.2
`27.3
`29.1
`30.9
`32.6
`35.7
`38.5
`41.2
`43.7
`46.1
`
`11.1
`15.7
`19.3
`22.3
`24.9
`27.3
`29.5
`31.5
`33.4
`35.2
`38.6
`41.7
`44.5
`47.3
`49.9
`
`10.1
`14.3
`17.5
`20.2
`22.6
`24.8
`26.8
`28.6
`30.4
`32.0
`35.1
`37.9
`40.5
`42.9
`45.3
`
`12.5
`17.7
`21.7
`25.0
`28.0
`30.7
`33.1
`35.4
`37.5
`39.6
`43.3
`46.8
`50.1
`53.1
`56.0
`
`twist, only a part of the theoretically available
`strength, based upon the number of fibers in the
`yam cross section, will actually result in the
`yarn.
`Cotton has a tenacity of about 3.0 to 4.9 gpd
`(27 to 44 gpt). Because it exists only as staple,
`its fiber strength is not completely convertible
`into equivalent yam strength, the efficiency of
`the conversion being on the order of magnitude
`of 50%. Thus, cotton yams usually have tenac­
`ities not in excess of about 3 gpd (27 gpt). The
`competitive advantages of multi-filament high
`tenacity rayon, nylon, or other synthetic yams
`become obvious.
`It should be apparent that strength per se is
`not the only criterion by which the performance
`of textiles should be judged. Textile yams and
`fabrics are normally used because they have
`flexibility and moderate strength, coupled with
`the ability to deform or strain under load,
`thereby absorbing energy, and the ability to
`recover or retract when the load is removed.
`Many other chemical and physical properties
`will influence the ultimate selection of the fiber
`and the yam and fabric into which it is con­
`verted.
`
`5. FIBER BREAKING ELONGATION
`
`Table 17.5 lists breaking elongations or strains
`which fibers can undergo up to the point of fail­
`
`ure. As a general rale it can be stated that an in­
`verse relationship exists between fiber strength
`and elongation. For natural cellulosic fibers,
`linen and ramie are stronger but have lower
`elongations than cotton; the animal fibers are
`much weaker but have greater elongations than
`the cellulosics. Glass fibers are very strong but
`very brittle, i.e., they have low elongations. In
`the manufacture of man-made fibers, for a par­
`ticular generic type, a range of inverse strength­
`elongation values is normally obtainable. Thus
`nylon can be made with a tenacity of 9 gpd (81
`gpt), an elongation of 12% or 5 gpd (45 gpt) and
`an elongation of 30%.
`
`6. FIBER LOAD-ELONGATION
`DIAGRAMS
`
`Figure 17.2 shows fiber tenacity (gpd) versus
`percent elongation diagrams. Often such dia­
`grams are popularly but somewhat erroneously
`called “stress-strain” curves. Actually the tenac­
`ity scale should be converted to a pounds per
`square inch (psi) scale in order to produce a true
`stress versus strain diagram. A variety of fibers
`with a wide range of tenacity-elongation dia­
`grams is available. The selection of a fiber for a
`particular purpose, of course, is dependent
`upon many property requirements. The shape of
`a fiber’s load-elongation diagram, initially and
`after the fiber has been cyclically loaded and
`
`Skechers EX1062
`Skechers v Nike
`
`

`

`TABLE 17.4 Tensile Properties of Fibers [2].
`
`Fiber
`
`Polyester
`A.C.E® and Compel®
`Filament—HT
`Dacron®
`Staple and tow
`POF
`Filament-RT
`Filament—HT
`Fortrel®
`Staple series 400—RT
`Staple series 300—HT
`PO filament
`Tairilin®
`POY
`Staple
`Trevira®
`Staple
`POF
`Filament—HT
`Thomel® carbon
`High strength
`High modulus
`Ultra-high modulus
`Nylon
`Nylon 6
`Staple
`Monofil. and filament—RT
`BCF-RT
`Filament—HT
`Nylon 6,6
`Staple and tow
`Monofil. and filament—RT
`Filament—HT
`Tencel* lyocell—HT
`Rayon
`Fibre®
`RT—Multi-lobed
`IT-0.9 den or 0.25 in and up
`Cuprammonium, filament
`Rayon
`Filament—RT
`Filament—HT
`Saran®, monofilament
`Acetate, filament and staple
`Ryton® sulfar, staple
`Acrylic
`Acrilan®, staple and tow
`Creslan®, staple and tow
`MicroSupreme, staple
`SEF® modacrylic, staple
`
`Breaking Tenacity (gpd)
`
`Standard
`
`Wet
`
`Tensile Strength
`(psi)
`
`8.3-9.0
`
`2.4-7.0
`2.0-2.5
`2.8-5.6
`6.8-9.5
`
`4.8-6.0
`6.0-6.8
`2.0-2.5
`
`2.0-3.0
`4.5-7.0
`
`3.5-6.0
`2.0-2.5
`7.2-8.2
`
`24.1
`21.3
`10.8
`
`3.5-7.2
`4.0-7.2
`2.0-4.0
`6.5-9.0
`
`2.9-7.2
`2.3-6.0
`5.9-9.8
`4.8-5.0
`
`2.3
`3.0
`1.95-2.0
`
`1.9-2.3
`4.9-5.3
`1.2-2.2
`1.2-1.4
`3.0-3.5
`
`2.2-2.3
`2.0-3.0
`2.0-3.0
`1.7-2.6
`
`9.0
`
`2.4-7.0
`2.0-2.5
`2.8-5.6
`6.8-9.S
`
`4.8-6.0
`6.0-6.8
`2.0-2.5
`
`2.0-3.0
`4.5-7.0
`
`3.5-6.0
`2.0-2.5
`7.2-S.2
`
`24.1
`21.3
`10.8
`
`3.7-6.2
`1.7-3.6
`5.8-8.2
`
`2.5-6.1
`2.0-5.5
`5.1-8.0
`3.8-4.2
`
`1.1
`1.5
`0.95-1.1
`
`1.0-1.4
`2.8-3.2
`1.2-2.2
`0.8-1.0
`3.0-3.5
`
`1.8-2.4
`1.6-2.7
`1.6-2.7
`1.5-2.4
`
`135,000-160,000
`
`39,000-106,000
`33,000-42,000
`50,000-99,000
`106,000-168,000
`
`85,000
`102,000
`80,000-88,000
`
`33,000-42,000
`80,000-102,000
`
`41,000-105,000
`33,000-42,000
`118,000-140,000
`
`550,000
`500,000
`270,000
`
`62,000-98,000
`73,000-100,000
`
`102,000-125,000
`
`40,000-106,000
`86,000-134,000
`
`15,000-27,000
`20,000-24,000
`35,000-40,000
`
`30,000-40,000
`30,000-45,000
`30,000-45,000
`29,000-45,000
`
`(continued)
`
`565
`
`Skechers EX1062
`Skechers v Nike
`
`

`

`TABLE 17.4 (continued).
`
`Breaking Tenacity (gpd)
`
`Standard
`
`Wet
`
`Tensile Strength
`(psi)
`
`1.0-3.0
`3.5-7.0
`
`3.S-4.5
`3.0-4.0
`
`2.0-5.0
`2.5-5.5
`
`2.5-3.5
`2.5-4.0
`30
`35
`
`2.5-5.5
`3.5-5.0
`2.5-5.5
`
`0.7
`
`1.0
`0.8
`
`15.3
`19.9
`9.6
`
`23
`18
`24.0
`26.5
`4.0-5.3
`
`3.0-4.0
`
`0.9-2.0
`0.5-0.7
`2.6-3.0
`2.5-3.1
`3.0-4.9
`2.4-5.1
`1.0-1.7
`3.5
`
`1.0-3.0
`3.5-7.0
`
`3.5-4.5
`3.0-4.0
`
`2.0-5.0
`2.5-5.5
`
`2.5-3.5
`2.5-4.0
`30
`35
`
`2.5-5.5
`2.5-5.0
`2.5-5.5
`
`15.3
`19.9
`6.7
`
`21.7
`
`3.0-4.1
`
`3.O-4.O
`
`0.9-2.0
`O.5-O.7
`2.1-2.5
`
`3.3-5.39
`1.75-4.01
`0.85-1.44
`3.5
`
`11,000-35,000
`30,000-85,000
`
`41,000-52,000
`35,000-47,000
`
`60,000-100,000
`20,000-50,000
`
`30,000-40,000
`30,000-45,000
`375,000,000
`425,000;000
`
`12,000-60,000
`40,000-66,000
`20,000-50,000
`
`11,000
`
`11,000-14,000
`
`450,000-550,000
`650,000-700,000
`313,000
`
`425,000
`340,000
`425,000
`490,000
`90,000
`
`85,000-115,000
`
`40,000-50,000 '
`14,000-20,000
`50,000
`80,000-300,000
`59,500-97,000
`38,500-88,000
`16,500-28,000
`512,500
`
`Fiber
`
`Olefin
`Polyethylene
`Monofilament, low density
`Monofilament, high density
`Herculon®
`Staple
`Buff filament
`Marvess® and Alpha®
`Staple and tow
`Multifilament
`Essera®, Marquesa Lana®, Pation® III
`BCF
`Staple
`Spectra® 900
`Spectra® 1000
`Fibrilon®
`Staple
`Fibrillated
`Multifilament- RT
`Spandex
`Glospan®/Cleerspan, S-85, multifilament
`Lycra®
`Type 126, 127
`Type 128
`Glass
`Single filament—E-glass
`Single filament-S-glass
`Multifilament
`Aramid
`Kevlar®
`Kevlar 29/Kevlar 49
`Kevlar 149
`Kevlar 68
`Kevlar HT (129)
`Nomex®, staple and filament
`Fluorocarbon
`Gore-Tex®
`Teflon®
`TFE multifil., staple, tow, flock
`FEP, PFA monofilament
`PBI, staple
`Asbestos
`Cotton
`Silk
`Wool
`Steel
`
`HT: high tenacity.
`POP: partially oriented filament.
`POY: partially oriented yam.
`RT: regular tenacity.
`IT: intermediate tenacity.
`
`566
`
`Skechers EX1062
`Skechers v Nike
`
`

`

`TABLE 17.5 Breaking Elongation, Elastic Recovery, Stiffness and Toughness of Fibers [2J.
`
`Breaking
`Elongation (%)
`
`Standard Wet
`
`Elastic Recovery (%)
`
`Average
`Stiffness
`(gpd)
`
`Average
`Toughness
`(gpd)
`
`13-22
`
`13-15
`
`77 at 5%; 75 at 10%
`
`82 at 3%
`
`76 at 3%
`88 at 3%
`
`12-55
`120-150
`24-42
`12-25
`
`44-55
`24
`120-150
`
`12-55
`120-150
`24-42
`12-25
`
`44-55
`24
`120-150
`
`120-170
`28-6
`
`120-170
`28-55
`
`88 at 3%
`
`18-60
`
`18-60
`
`130-145
`10-20
`
`130-145
`10-20
`
`67-86 at 2%
`57-74% at 5%
`
`99 at 1%
`
`1.6
`1.0
`0.38
`
`100
`100
`100
`
`42-100
`20-47
`30-60
`19-33
`
`18-78
`30-70
`18-32
`16-18
`
`100 at 2%
`98-100 at 1-10%
`
`99-100 at 2-8%
`
`82 at 3%
`88 at 3%
`89 at 3%
`
`55-56
`
`12-17
`
`10-30
`30
`
`10-30
`
`7-31
`
`54-77
`
`1,500
`2,300
`3,000
`
`17-20
`18-23
`
`29-48
`
`10-45
`5-24
`21-58
`30
`
`0.7-0.9
`
`0.2-1.1
`1.3-1.8
`0.4-1.1
`0.5-0.7
`
`1.3-1.8
`
`1.3-1.8
`0.3-1.5
`
`0.28-1.50
`
`1.3-1.8
`0.35-0.55
`
`0.64-0.78
`0.67-0.90
`
`0.75-0.84
`
`0.58-1.37
`0.8-1.25
`0.8-1.28
`0.34
`
`Fiber
`
`Polyester
`A.C.E.* and Compel®
`Filament—HT
`Dacron®
`Staple and tow
`POF
`Filament—RT
`Filament-HT
`Fortrel®
`Staple series 400—RT
`Staple series 300—HT
`PO filament
`Tairilin®
`POY
`Staple
`Trevira®
`Staple
`
`POF
`Filament-HT
`Thornel® carbon
`High strength
`High modulus
`Ultra-high modulus
`Nylon
`Nylon 6
`Staple
`Monofil. and filament—RT
`BCF-RT
`Filament—HT
`Nylon 6,6
`Staple and tow
`Monofil & filament-RT
`Filament—HT
`Tencel® lyocell-HT
`Rayon
`Fibro®
`RT-Multi-lobed
`IT-0.9 den or 0.25 in and up
`Cuprammonium, filament
`Rayon
`Filament-RT
`Filament-HT
`Saran®, monofilament
`Acetate, filament and staple
`Ryton® sulfar, staple
`Acrylic
`Acrilan®, staple and tow
`Creslan®, staple and tow
`MicroSupreme, staple
`SEF® modacrylic, staple
`
`1.6
`1.0
`0.38
`
`30-90
`17-45
`30-50
`16-20
`
`16-75
`25-65
`15-28
`14-16
`
`18-22
`18-22
`8-14
`
`20-25
`11-14
`15-25
`25-45
`35-45
`
`40-55
`35-45
`30-40
`45-60
`
`24-28
`
`24-29
`13-16
`15-25
`35-50
`
`40-60
`41-50
`30-40
`45-65
`
`95 at 5-10%
`48-65 at 4%
`100 at 2%; 86 at 10%
`
`5-10
`3.5-5.5
`10-20
`
`0.165-0.265
`0.17-0.30
`
`99 at 2%; 89 at 5%
`
`100 at 1%; 95 at 10%
`
`5-7
`6-8
`6-8
`3.8
`
`0.4-0.5
`0.62
`0.62
`0.5
`
`(continued)
`
`567
`
`Skechers EX1062
`Skechers v Nike
`
`

`

`TABLE 17.5 (continued).
`
`Breaking
`Elongation (°/o)
`
`Fiber
`
`Standard Wet
`
`Elastic Recovery (°/o)
`
`Average
`Stiffness
`(gpd)
`
`Average
`Toughness
`(9Pd)
`
`20-80
`
`10-45
`
`Up to 95 at 5%
`88 at 10%
`Up to 100 at 1-10%
`
`70-100
`80-100
`
`96 at 5%; 90 at 10%
`96a at 5%; 90 at 10%
`
`2-12
`
`20-50
`
`20-30
`20-30
`
`0.3
`
`1-3
`1-3
`
`80-98
`85-99
`
`90-93 at 5%; 83 at 10% 3-10
`92-96 at 5%; 87 at 10% 12-25
`
`1.5-4
`0.75-3.00
`
`0.9-1.05
`■<
`
`J
`
`90 at 5%; 65-90 at 10% 5-10
`
`1,400
`2,000
`
`93 at 5%; 85 at 10%
`85 at 5%; 75 at 10%
`95 at 5%; 85 at 10%
`
`12-25
`
`0.75-3.00
`
`99% at 50% (S-7)
`98% at 200% (S-5)
`
`0.17 (S-7)
`0.05 (S-5)
`
`Olefin
`Polyethylene
`Monofilament, low density
`
`20-80
`
`10-45
`
`70-100
`80-100
`
`60-100
`20-50
`
`Monofilament, high density
`Herculon®
`Staple
`Buff filament
`Marvess® and Alpha®
`Staple and tow
`Multifilament
`Essera®, Marquesa Lana®, Pation® HI
`BCF
`Staple
`Spectra® 900
`Spectra® 1000
`Fibrilon®
`Staple
`Fibrillated
`Multifilament—RT
`Spandex
`Glospan®/Cleerspan, S-85, multifilament 600-700
`
`40-60
`30-450
`3.6
`2.7
`
`30-150
`14-18
`30-100
`
`40-60
`30-450
`3.6
`2.7
`
`30-150
`14-18
`30-100
`
`400-625
`800
`
`4.8
`5.3-5.7
`3.1
`
`4.0/2.5
`1.5
`3.0
`3.3
`22-32
`
`5-20
`
`19-140
`40-62
`25-30
`3-7
`10-25
`25-35
`
`97 at 50%
`99 at 200%
`
`4.8
`5.3-5.7
`2.2
`
`100
`100
`100
`
`0.13-0.20 2.00
`
`320
`380
`310
`
`0.37
`0.53
`0.15
`
`4.0/2.5
`
`20-30
`
`5-20
`
`19-140
`40-62
`26-32
`
`25-50
`
`100 at 1%, 2%, 3%
`100 at 1%
`100 at 1%, 2%
`100 at 1%, 2%
`
`500/900
`1,110
`780
`755
`70-120
`
`1.0-13.0
`7.0
`9-12
`60-70
`60-116
`4.5
`
`0.15
`0.10-0.12
`0.40
`0.15
`0.4-0.8
`0.35
`
`74 at 2%; 45 at 5%
`92 at 2%; 51 at 10%
`99 at 25%; 63 at 20%
`
`Lycra®
`Type 126, 127
`Type 128
`Glass
`Single filament—E-glass
`Single filament—S-glass
`Multifilament
`Aramid
`>
`Kevlar®
`Kevlar, Kevlar 29/Kevlar 49
`Kevlar 149
`Kevlar 68
`Kevlar HT (129)
`Nomex®, staple and filament
`Fluorocarbon
`Gore-Tex®
`Teflon®
`TFE multifil., staple, tow, flock
`FEP, PFA monofilament
`PBI, staple
`Cotton
`Silk
`Wool
`
`HT: high tenacity.
`POP: partially oriented filament.
`POY: partially oriented yam.
`RT: regular tenacity.
`IT: intermediate tenacity.
`
`568
`
`Skechers EX1062
`Skechers v Nike
`
`

`

`A.C.E.*, Compel*
`Polyester
`
`Elongation (%)
`
`Polyester
`
`Trevi ra*
`Polyester
`
`Thornel*
`Carbon
`
`Elongat