WOODHEAD PUBLISHING IN MATERIALS
`
`Edited by Christiane Maierhofer,
`
`Hans-Wolf Reinhardt and Gerd Dobmann Page 1 of 52
`
`Non-destructive
`evaluation of
`reinforced concrete
`structures
`Volume 2: Non-destructive
`testing methods
`
`Page 1 of 52
`
`HAPTIC EX2007
`
`Page 1 of 52
`
`

`

`Non-destructive evaluation of reinforced
`concrete structures
`
`© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2010
`
`Page 2 of 52
`
`

`

`Related titles:
`
`Strengthening and rehabilitation of civil infrastructures using fi bre-reinforced polymer
`(FRP) composites
`(ISBN 978-1-84569-448-7)
`The book discusses the mechanical and in-service properties, the relevant manufac-
`turing techniques and aspects related to externally bonded FRP composites to
`strengthen/rehabilitate/retrofi t civil engineering structural materials. The book
`focuses on: mechanical properties of the FRP materials used; analysis and design of
`strengthening/rehabilitating/retrofi tting beams and columns manufactured from
`reinforced concrete (RC), metallic and masonry materials; failure modes of strength-
`ening systems; site preparation of the two adherend materials; durability issues;
`quality control, maintenance and repair of structural systems; case studies.
`
`Developments in the formulation and reinforcement of concrete
`(ISBN 978-1-84569-63-6)
`Developments in the formulation and reinforcement of concrete are of great topical
`interest to the construction industry worldwide, with applications in high-rise, off-
`shore, nuclear and bridge structures, and in pre-cast concrete. This authoritative
`book addresses in one source the current lack of information on the latest develop-
`ments in the formulation and reinforcement of concrete. The book discusses the
`latest types of reinforced concrete and reinforcement and includes chapters on hot
`weather concreting, cold weather concreting and the use of recycled materials in
`concrete. It presents current research from leading innovators in the fi eld.
`
`Failure, distress and repair of concrete structures
`(ISBN 978-1-84569-408-1)
`Many concrete structures around the world have reached or exceeded their design
`life and are showing signs of deterioration. Any concrete structure which has
`deteriorated or has sustained damage is a potential hazard. Understanding and
`recognising failure mechanisms in concrete structures is a fundamental pre-requisite
`to determining the type of repair or whether a repair is feasible. Failure, distress
`and repair of concrete structures provides in-depth coverage of concrete deteriora-
`tion and damage, as well as looking at the various repair technologies available.
`The fi rst part of the book describes failure mechanisms in concrete including causes
`and types of failure. The second part examines the repair of concrete structures
`including methods, materials, standards and durability.
`
`Details of these and other Woodhead Publishing materials books can be obtained
`by:
`
`• visiting our web site at www.woodheadpublishing.com
`contacting Customer Services (e-mail: sales@woodheadpublishing.com; fax: +44
`•
`(0) 1223 893694; tel.: +44 (0) 1223 891358 ext. 130; address: Woodhead Publishing
`Limited, Abington Hall, Granta Park, Great Abington, Cambridge CB21 6AH,
`UK)
`
`If you would like to receive information on forthcoming titles, please send your
`address details to: Francis Dodds (address, tel. and fax as above; e-mail: francis.
`dodds@woodheadpublishing.com). Please confi rm which subject areas you are
`interested in.
`
`This book belongs to James Hall (james@chzfirm.com)
`
`Copyright Elsevier 2025
`
`© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2010
`
`Page 3 of 52
`
`

`

`Non-destructive
`evaluation of
`reinforced concrete
`structures
`
`Volume 2: Non-destructive
`testing methods
`
`Edited by
`Christiane Maierhofer, Hans-Wolf Reinhardt
`and Gerd Dobmann
`
`Oxford
`
`
`
` Cambridge
`
`
`
` New Delhi
`
`This book belongs to James Hall (james@chzfirm.com)
`
`Copyright Elsevier 2025
`
`© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2010
`
`Page 4 of 52
`
`

`

`Published by Woodhead Publishing Limited, Abington Hall, Granta Park,
`Great Abington, Cambridge CB21 6AH, UK
`www.woodheadpublishing.com
`
`Woodhead Publishing India Private Limited, G-2, Vardaan House, 7/28 Ansari
`Road, Daryaganj, New Delhi – 110002, India
`www.woodheadpublishingindia.com
`
`Published in North America by CRC Press LLC, 6000 Broken Sound Parkway, NW,
`Suite 300, Boca Raton, FL 33487, USA
`
`First published 2010, Woodhead Publishing Limited and CRC Press LLC
`© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2010; except for Chapter 7. Chapter 7
`© K. J. Sandmeier, 2010
`The authors have asserted their moral rights.
`
`This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded
`sources. Reprinted material is quoted with permission, and sources are indicated.
`Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but
`the authors and the publishers cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all
`materials. Neither the authors nor the publishers, nor anyone else associated with
`this publication, shall be liable for any loss, damage or liability directly or
`indirectly caused or alleged to be caused by this book.
`Neither this book nor any part may be reproduced or transmitted in any form
`or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, microfi lming
`and recording, or by any information storage or retrieval system, without
`permission in writing from Woodhead Publishing Limited.
`The consent of Woodhead Publishing Limited does not extend to copying for
`general distribution, for promotion, for creating new works, or for resale. Specifi c
`permission must be obtained in writing from Woodhead Publishing Limited for
`such copying.
`
`Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered
`trademarks, and are used only for identifi cation and explanation, without intent to
`infringe.
`
`British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
`A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.
`
`Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data
`A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress.
`
`Woodhead Publishing ISBN 978-1-84569-950-5 (book)
`Woodhead Publishing ISBN 978-1-84569-960-4 (e-book)
`CRC Press ISBN 978-1-4398-4112-9
`CRC Press order number: N10267
`
`The publishers’ policy is to use permanent paper from mills that operate a
`sustainable forestry policy, and which has been manufactured from pulp which is
`processed using acid-free and elemental chlorine-free practices. Furthermore, the
`publishers ensure that the text paper and cover board used have met acceptable
`environmental accreditation standards.
`
`Typeset by Toppan Best-set Premedia Limited, Hong Kong
`Printed by TJ International Limited, Padstow, Cornwall, UK
`
`This book belongs to James Hall (james@chzfirm.com)
`
`Copyright Elsevier 2025
`
`© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2010
`
`Page 5 of 52
`
`

`

`Contents
`
`Contributor contact details
`Preface
`
`Part I Planning and implementing non-destructive
`testing of reinforced concrete structures
`
`1
`
`1.1
`1.2
`
`1.3
`1.4
`1.5
`1.6
`
`2
`
`2.1
`2.2
`2.3
`2.4
`2.5
`2.6
`
`Planning a non-destructive test programme for
`reinforced concrete structures
`C. Maierhofer, BAM Federal Institute for
`Materials Research and Testing, Germany
`
`Introduction
`Strategies for the application of non-destructive testing
`(NDT) methods
`Overview of non-destructive testing (NDT) methods
`Qualifi cation/validation of methods
`Sources of further information and advice
`References
`
`Non-destructive testing methods for building
`diagnosis – state of the art and future trends
`C. Flohrer, HOCHTIEF Construction AG, Germany
`
`Introduction
`Tasks for building diagnosis
`Effi cient testing methods
`Examples of the application of the testing methods
`Future trends
`References
`
`xv
`xxi
`
`1
`
`3
`
`3
`
`4
`6
`8
`10
`12
`
`14
`
`14
`14
`15
`18
`28
`29
`
`v
`
`This book belongs to James Hall (james@chzfirm.com)
`
`Copyright Elsevier 2025
`
`© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2010
`
`Page 6 of 52
`
`

`

`vi
`
`3
`
`3.1
`3.2
`3.3
`
`3.4
`
`3.5
`3.6
`
`3.7
`3.8
`3.9
`
`4
`
`4.1
`4.2
`4.3
`4.4
`
`4.5
`
`4.6
`4.7
`
`5
`
`5.1
`5.2
`
`5.3
`
`Contents
`
`Development of automated non-destructive
`evaluation (NDE) systems for reinforced concrete
`structures and other applications
`G. Dobmann and J. H. Kurz, Fraunhofer-IZFP,
`Germany; A. Taffe, BAM Federal Institute for
`Materials Research and Testing, Germany;
`D. Streicher, Joint Lab of Fraunhofer & BAM, Germany
`
`Introduction
`The innovation cycles
`Data acquisition, control and evaluation in automated
`multisensor systems
`Case studies of successful innovations to automated
`systems in non-destructive testing (NDT) engineering
`Non-destructive testing for structural engineering
`Multiple-sensor data acquisition by the OSSCAR
`(On-Site SCAnneR) scanner
`Conclusions
`Acknowledgements
`References
`
`Structural health monitoring systems for reinforced
`concrete structures
`W. R. Habel, BAM Federal Institute for
`Materials Research and Testing, Germany
`
`Introduction
`Demands on monitoring systems: monitoring capabilities
`Innovative monitoring methods
`Selected examples of effective and innovative monitoring
`technologies
`Reliability of structural health monitoring (SHM) systems
`and standardization
`Future trends
`References
`
`Combining the results of various non-destructive
`evaluation techniques for reinforced concrete:
`data fusion
`C. Maierhofer, C. Kohl and J. Wöstmann, BAM Federal
`Institute for Materials Research and Testing, Germany
`
`Introduction
`Combination of non-destructive testing (NDT) and minor
`destructive testing (MDT) methods
`Data fusion
`
`© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2010
`
`30
`
`30
`31
`
`34
`
`36
`46
`
`54
`60
`60
`60
`
`63
`
`63
`64
`67
`
`74
`
`87
`90
`91
`
`95
`
`95
`
`96
`98
`
`This book belongs to James Hall (james@chzfirm.com)
`
`Copyright Elsevier 2025
`
`Page 7 of 52
`
`

`

`
`
`5.4
`5.5
`
`5.6
`
`5.7
`5.8
`5.9
`5.10
`
`Contents
`
`Fusion of radar data
`Fusion of radar and ultrasonic data recorded along a
`beam of a box girder bridge
`Fusion of radar and ultrasonic data at a cross beam inside
`a box girder bridge
`Sources of further information and advice
`Conclusions and future trends
`Acknowledgements
`References
`
`Part II Individual non-destructive testing techniques
`
`6
`
`6.1
`6.2
`6.3
`6.4
`6.5
`6.6
`6.7
`6.8
`
`7
`
`7.1
`7.2
`
`7.3
`7.4
`7.5
`7.6
`
`8
`
`Wireless monitoring of reinforced concrete structures
`M. Krüger, University of Stuttgart, Germany
`
`Introduction
`Basic principles of wireless monitoring
`Defi nition of the monitoring task
`Monitoring system design and assembly
`Wireless monitoring systems in operation
`Application of intelligent wireless monitoring
`Conclusions and future trends
`References
`
`Non-destructive testing of concrete with
`electromagnetic and acoustic–elastic waves:
`data analysis
`K.-J. Sandmeier, Sandmeier Scientifi c Software, Germany
`
`Introduction
`Similarities and differences between seismic, ultrasonic
`and electromagnetic wave propagation and their
`implications on data processing
`Standard data processing
`Sophisticated data processing
`Conclusions and future trends
`References
`
`Non-destructive testing of concrete with
`electromagnetic, acoustic and elastic waves:
`modelling and imaging
`K. J. Langenberg, K. Mayer and R. Marklein,
`University of Kassel, Germany
`
`8.1
`8.2
`
`Introduction
`Electromagnetic, acoustic and elastic waves
`
`© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2010
`
`vii
`
`100
`
`101
`
`103
`105
`105
`106
`106
`
`109
`
`111
`
`111
`112
`114
`116
`119
`119
`122
`122
`
`125
`
`125
`
`125
`127
`136
`142
`142
`
`144
`
`144
`145
`
`This book belongs to James Hall (james@chzfirm.com)
`
`Copyright Elsevier 2025
`
`Page 8 of 52
`
`

`

`viii
`
`8.3
`
`8.4
`8.5
`8.6
`8.7
`
`9
`
`9.1
`9.2
`
`9.3
`9.4
`9.5
`9.6
`9.7
`
`10
`
`Contents
`
`Numerical wave fi eld modelling for acoustic,
`electromagnetic and elastic waves
`Wave fi eld inversion and imaging: acoustic waves
`Wave fi eld inversion: electromagnetic and elastic waves
`Conclusions
`References
`
`Laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS) for
`evaluation of reinforced concrete structures
`G. Wilsch, BAM Federal Institute for
`Materials Research and Testing; A. Molkenthin,
`Specht, Kalleja + Partner GmbH, Germany
`
`Introduction
`Laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS):
`fundamentals and measurement
`Characterization of cement, mortar and concrete
`Detection of specifi c elements: specifi c testing problems
`Mobile set-up: on-site applications
`Limitations and reliability
`References
`
`Acoustic emission (AE) evaluation of reinforced
`concrete structures
`C. U. Grosse, Technical University of Munich, Germany
`
`10.1
`10.2
`
`Introduction
`Basics: parametric and signal-based acoustic emission (AE)
`analysis
`Sensors and instruments
`10.3
`Source localization
`10.4
`Source mechanisms and moment tensor analysis
`10.5
`10.6 Applications
`10.7
`Limitations and accuracy
`10.8
`References
`
`11
`
`Magnetic fl ux leakage (MFL) for the non-destructive
`evaluation of pre-stressed concrete structures
`G. Sawade, University of Stuttgart, Germany;
`H.-J. Krause, Forschungszentrum Jülich, Germany
`
`11.1 Magnetic method for inspection of reinforced concrete
`structures
`11.2 Description of equipment required
`
`151
`154
`158
`159
`161
`
`163
`
`163
`
`164
`167
`173
`180
`183
`184
`
`185
`
`185
`
`187
`191
`193
`197
`199
`206
`210
`
`215
`
`215
`233
`
`This book belongs to James Hall (james@chzfirm.com)
`
`Copyright Elsevier 2025
`
`© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2010
`
`Page 9 of 52
`
`

`

`
`
`11.3
`11.4
`
`11.5
`
`11.6
`
`12
`
`Contents
`
`Examples of applications of the magnetic method on site
`Perspective: recent developments of the magnetic method
`for inspection of reinforced concrete
`Recommendations for the application of the magnetic fl ux
`leakage (MFL) method
`References
`
`Electrical resistivity for the evaluation of reinforced
`concrete structures
`J.-F. Lataste, University of Bordeaux 1, France
`
`Introduction
`12.1
`Physical principles and theory
`12.2
`12.3 Use of electrical resistivity
`12.4 Other developments
`12.5
`Impedance spectroscopy
`12.6
`References
`
`13
`
`Capacimetry for the evaluation of reinforced
`concrete structures
`X. Dérobert, LCPC, France
`
`Physical principle and theory
`13.1
`Equipment
`13.2
`Calibration
`13.3
`13.4 Data acquisition and interpretation
`13.5 Applications
`13.6
`Limitations and reliability
`13.7
`References
`
`14
`
`Techniques for measuring the corrosion rate
`(polarization resistance) and the corrosion
`potential of reinforced concrete structures
`C. Andrade and I. Martínez, Instituto de Ciencias de la
`Construcción Eduardo Torroja (CSIC), Spain
`
`Introduction
`14.1
`Principles
`14.2
`14.3 Measurement methods
`14.4 How to interpret the measurements
`14.5
`Practical application
`14.6 Monitoring systems
`14.7
`Future trends: new techniques
`14.8
`Conclusions
`14.9
`References
`
`ix
`
`235
`
`239
`
`240
`241
`
`243
`
`243
`244
`255
`264
`268
`270
`
`276
`
`276
`279
`280
`280
`281
`282
`283
`
`284
`
`284
`285
`293
`303
`306
`310
`311
`312
`313
`
`This book belongs to James Hall (james@chzfirm.com)
`
`Copyright Elsevier 2025
`
`© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2010
`
`Page 10 of 52
`
`

`

`x
`
`15
`
`Contents
`
`Ground penetrating radar for the evaluation of
`reinforced concrete structures
`J. Hugenschmidt, EMPA, Switzerland
`
`Introduction to ground penetrating radar (GPR)
`15.1
`Physical principles and theory
`15.2
`15.3 Display formats for ground penetrating radar (GPR) data
`15.4 Data processing and interpretation
`15.5
`Equipment
`15.6
`Limitations and reliability of ground penetrating radar
`(GPR)
`Current and future trends
`Symbols and constants
`References
`
`15.7
`15.8
`15.9
`
`16
`
`Radar tomography for evaluation of reinforced
`concrete structures
`L. Zanzi, Politecnico di Milano, Italy
`
`Introduction
`16.1
`Physical principles
`16.2
`Fundamental equations
`16.3
`Resolution
`16.4
`Equipment
`16.5
`16.6 Acquisition procedures
`16.7 Data pre-processing
`16.8 Data inversion
`16.9 Artefacts
`16.10
`Interpretation of results
`16.11 Examples
`16.12 Hints on advanced algorithms
`16.13 Conclusions
`16.14 References
`
`17
`
`Active thermography for evaluation of reinforced
`concrete structures
`C. Maierhofer, M. Röllig and J. Schlichting,
`BAM Federal Institute for Materials Research and
`Testing, Germany
`
`Introduction
`17.1
`Physical principle and theoretical background
`17.2
`State of the art
`17.3
`Experimental equipment and calibration
`17.4
`17.5 Data processing
`17.6 Areas of applications
`
`© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2010
`
`317
`
`317
`318
`322
`323
`325
`
`326
`327
`331
`332
`
`334
`
`334
`335
`337
`338
`339
`341
`344
`346
`349
`350
`354
`363
`365
`365
`
`370
`
`370
`372
`375
`376
`380
`386
`
`This book belongs to James Hall (james@chzfirm.com)
`
`Copyright Elsevier 2025
`
`Page 11 of 52
`
`

`

`
`
`Contents
`
`Future trends
`17.7
`17.8 Guidelines and sources of further information and advice
`17.9
`References
`
`18
`
`Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) imaging for
`evaluation of reinforced concrete structures
`B. Wolter, Fraunhofer IZFP, Germany
`
`Introduction
`18.1
`Physical background
`18.2
`Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) hardware
`18.3
`18.4 Application possibilities
`18.5
`Reliability and limitations
`18.6
`Conclusions and future trends
`18.7
`References
`
`19
`
`Stress wave propagation for evaluation of reinforced
`concrete structures
`S. Tesfamariam, The University of British Columbia,
`Canada; B. Martín-Pérez, University of Ottawa, Canada
`
`Introduction
`19.1
`Stress wave propagation methods
`19.2
`19.3 Applications
`19.4 Discussion and future trends
`19.5
`Conclusions
`19.6
`References
`
`20
`
`20.1
`20.2
`20.3
`20.4
`20.5
`20.6
`
`21
`
`Surface wave techniques for evaluation of concrete
`structures
`J. S. Popovics, University of Illinois, USA; O. Abraham,
`LCPC, France
`
`Introduction
`Basic principles of surface wave propagation
`Signal processing and data presentation
`Equipment
`Field application of surface wave methods
`References
`
`Impact–echo techniques for evaluation of concrete
`structures
`O. Abraham, LCPC, France; J. S. Popovics,
`University of Illinois, USA
`
`21.1 History of the development of the method
`21.2
`Basic principles of the impact–echo method
`
`© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2010
`
`xi
`
`396
`397
`399
`
`403
`
`403
`404
`407
`409
`413
`414
`415
`
`417
`
`417
`419
`424
`435
`436
`436
`
`441
`
`441
`443
`449
`457
`459
`460
`
`466
`
`466
`467
`
`This book belongs to James Hall (james@chzfirm.com)
`
`Copyright Elsevier 2025
`
`Page 12 of 52
`
`

`

`xii
`
`Contents
`
`21.3 Data interpretation
`21.4
`Numerical simulations
`21.5
`Signal processing, data presentation and imaging
`21.6
`Equipment
`21.7
`Impact–echo method applications
`21.8
`Future trends
`21.9
`References
`
`22
`
`Ultrasonic techniques for evaluation of reinforced
`concrete structures
`M. Schickert, Institute of Materials Research and Testing
`(MFPA Weimar), Germany; M. Krause, BAM Federal
`Institute for Materials Research and Testing, Germany
`
`Introduction
`22.1
`22.2 Ultrasonic wave propagation in concrete
`22.3 Applications and requirements of ultrasonic
`non-destructive testing
`Transmission methods
`Imaging of concrete elements
`Future trends
`Sources of further information and advice
`References
`
`22.4
`22.5
`22.6
`22.7
`22.8
`
`Part III Case studies
`
`23
`
`Inspection of concrete retaining walls using ground
`penetrating radar (GPR): a case study
`J. Hugenschmidt, EMPA, Switzerland
`
`Problem description
`23.1
`23.2 Data acquisition
`23.3 Data processing
`23.4
`Results
`23.5
`Conclusions
`23.6
`Reference
`
`24
`
`Acoustic emission and impact–echo techniques
`for evaluation of reinforced concrete structures:
`a case study
`M. Ohtsu, Kumamoto University, Japan
`
`24.1
`
`Introduction
`
`469
`474
`475
`480
`481
`484
`485
`
`490
`
`490
`491
`
`499
`500
`503
`521
`525
`526
`
`531
`
`533
`
`533
`534
`536
`538
`542
`542
`
`543
`
`543
`
`This book belongs to James Hall (james@chzfirm.com)
`
`Copyright Elsevier 2025
`
`© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2010
`
`Page 13 of 52
`
`

`

`
`
`Contents
`
`xiii
`
`24.2 Applications of acoustic emission (AE) and impact–
`echo (IE) for concrete structures
`Case studies
`Conclusions and future trends for on-site application
`References
`
`24.3
`24.4
`24.5
`
`25
`
`Using ground-penetrating radar (GPR) to assess
`an eight-span post-tensioned viaduct: a case study
`X. Dérobert, LCPC, France; B. Berenger, LRPC Angers,
`France
`
`Introduction
`25.1
`Localization of post-tensioned ducts
`25.2
`25.3 Gammagraphic imaging
`25.4 Windowing
`25.5
`Evaluation of the structure and reinforcement proposal
`25.6
`Localization of post-tensioned ducts and coring
`25.7 Discussion of the applied methodology
`25.8 Acknowledgements
`25.9
`References
`
`Index
`
`544
`551
`571
`572
`
`574
`
`574
`575
`577
`577
`579
`579
`580
`583
`584
`
`585
`
`This book belongs to James Hall (james@chzfirm.com)
`
`Copyright Elsevier 2025
`
`© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2010
`
`Page 14 of 52
`
`

`

`This page intentionally left blank
`
`This book belongs to James Hall (james@chzfirm.com)
`
`Copyright Elsevier 2025
`
`Page 15 of 52
`
`

`

`Contributor contact details
`
`(* = main contact)
`
`Chapter 1
`
`Christiane Maierhofer
`BAM Federal Institute for
`Materials Research and Testing
`Division VIII.4
`Unter den Eichen 87
`12205 Berlin
`Germany
`Email: christiane.maierhofer@bam.
`de
`
`Chapter 2
`
`Claus Flohrer
`HOCHTIEF Construction AG
`Farmstr. 91–97
`64546 Mörfelden-Walldorf
`Germany
`Email: Claus.Flohrer@hochtief.de
`
`Chapter 3
`G. Dobmann* and J. H. Kurz
`Fraunhofer-IZFP
`Campus E 3 1
`66123 Saarbrücken
`Germany
`Email: gerd.dobmann@izfp.
`fraunhofer.de
`
`Editors
`
`Christiane Maierhofer*
`BAM Federal Institute for
`Materials Research and
`Testing
`Division VIII.4
`Unter den Eichen 87
`12205 Berlin
`Germany
`Email: christiane.maierhofer@bam.
`de
`
`H. W. Reinhardt
`Department of Construction
`Materials
`University of Stuttgart
`Pfaffenwaldring 4
`D-70569 Stuttgart
`Germany
`Email: reinhardt@iwb.uni-stuttgart.
`de
`
`G. Dobmann
`Fraunhofer-IZFP
`Campus E 3 1
`66123 Saarbrücken
`Germany
`Email: gerd.dobmann@izfp.
`fraunhofer.de
`
`© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2010
`
`xv
`
`This book belongs to James Hall (james@chzfirm.com)
`
`Copyright Elsevier 2025
`
`Page 16 of 52
`
`

`

`xvi
`
`Contributor contact details
`
`A. Taffe
`BAM Federal Institute for
`Materials Research and Testing
`Unter den Eichen 87
`12205 Berlin
`Germany
`
`D. Streicher
`Joint Lab of Fraunhofer & BAM
`Unter den Eichen 87
`12205 Berlin
`Germany
`
`Chapter 4
`
`Wolfgang R. Habel
`BAM Federal Institute for
`Materials Research and Testing
`Division VIII.1
`Unter den Eichen 87
`12205 Berlin
`Germany
`Email: wolfgang.habel@bam.de
`
`Chapter 5
`
`Christiane Maierhofer*, Ch. Kohl
`and J. Wöstmann
`BAM Federal Institute for
`Materials Research and Testing
`Division VIII.4
`Unter den Eichen 87
`12205 Berlin
`Germany
`Email: christiane.maierhofer@bam.
`de
`
`Chapter 6
`
`Dr Markus Krüger
`MPA Universität Stuttgart
`Pfaffenwaldring 2b
`D-70569 Stuttgart
`Germany
`Email: markus.krueger@mpa.uni-
`stuttgart.de
`
`Chapter 7
`
`Dr Karl-Josef Sandmeier
`Zipser Straße 1
`76227 Karlsruhe
`Germany
`Email: info@sandmeier-geo.de
`
`Chapter 8
`
`K. J. Langenberg*, K. Mayer and
`R. Marklein
`Department of Electrical
`Engineering and Computer
`Science
`University of Kassel
`34109 Kassel
`Germany
`Email: langenberg@uni-kassel.de
`
`Chapter 9
`
`Gerd Wilsch*
`BAM Federal Institute for
`Materials Research and
`Testing
`Division VIII.2
`Unter den Eichen 87
`12205 Berlin
`Germany
`Email: Gerd.Wilsch@bam.de
`
`Dr Andre Molkenthin
`Specht, Kalleja + Partner GmbH
`Reuchlinstr. 10–11
`10553 Berlin
`Germany
`Email: molkenthin@skp-ingenieure.
`com
`
`This book belongs to James Hall (james@chzfirm.com)
`
`Copyright Elsevier 2025
`
`© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2010
`
`Page 17 of 52
`
`

`

`
`
`Chapter 10
`
`Prof. Dr Christian U. Grosse
`Department of Non-destructive
`Testing
`Centre for Building Materials
`Technical University of Munich
`Baumbachstraße 7
`81245 München
`Germany
`Email: grosse@cbm.bv.tum.de
`
`Chapter 11
`
`Gottfried Sawade*
`Material Testing Institute (MPA)
`Universität Stuttgart
`Pfaffenwaldring 4
`D-70569 Stuttgart
`Germany
`Email: gottfried.sawade@mpa.uni-
`stuttgart.de
`
`Hans-Joachim Krause
`Forschungszentrum Jülich
`Institut für Bio- und Nanosysteme
`52425 Jülich
`Germany
`Email: h.-j.krause@fz-juelich.de
`
`Chapter 12
`
`Dr Jean-François Lataste
`Université Bordeaux 1
`Laboratoire GHYMAC
`Avenue des facultés, Bâtiment B18
`33400 Talence
`France
`Email: jf.lataste@ghymac.u-
`bordeaux1.fr
`
`Contributor contact details
`
`xvii
`
`Chapter 13
`
`Xavier Dérobert
`LCPC
`Route de Bouaye
`BP4129
`44341 Bouguenais
`France
`Email: xavier.derobert@lcpc.fr
`
`Chapter 14
`
`Carmen Andrade and Isabel
`Martínez*
`Instituto de Ciencias de la
`Construcción Eduardo Torroja
`(CSIC)
`C/Serrano Galvache n° 4
`28033 Madrid
`Spain
`Email: isabelms@ietcc.csic.es;
`andrade@ietcc.csic.es
`
`Chapter 15
`
`Johannes Hugenschmidt
`EMPA
`Ueberlandstrasse 129
`8600 Duebendorf
`Switzerland
`Email: Johannes.hugenschmidt@
`empa.ch
`
`Chapter 16
`
`Prof. Luigi Zanzi
`Department of Structural
`Engineering
`Politecnico di Milano
`Piazza Leonardo da Vinci 32
`20133 Milano
`Italy
`Email: luigi.zanzi@polimi.it
`
`This book belongs to James Hall (james@chzfirm.com)
`
`Copyright Elsevier 2025
`
`© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2010
`
`Page 18 of 52
`
`

`

`xviii
`
`Contributor contact details
`
`Chapter 17
`
`Chapter 20
`
`John S. Popovics*
`The University of Illinois
`205 N. Mathews Ave. MC 250
`Urbana
`IL 61801
`USA
`Email: johnpop@illinois.edu
`
`Odile Abraham
`LCPC
`Route de Bouaye
`BP4129
`44341 Bouguenais
`France
`Email: odile.abraham@lcpc.fr
`
`Chapter 21
`
`Odile Abraham*
`LCPC
`Route de Bouaye
`BP4129
`44341 Bouguenais
`France
`Email: odile.abraham@lcpc.fr
`
`John S. Popovics
`The University of Illinois
`205 N. Mathews Ave. MC 250
`Urbana
`IL 61801
`USA
`Email: johnpop@illinois.edu
`
`Christiane Maierhofer*, Mathias
`Röllig and Joachim Schlichting
`BAM Federal Institute for
`Materials Research and Testing
`Unter den Eichen 87
`12205 Berlin
`Germany
`Email: christiane.maierhofer@bam.
`de
`
`Chapter 18
`
`Dipl. Ing. Bernd Wolter
`Fraunhofer Institute for Non-
`destructive Testing (IZFP)
`Campus Building E 3.1
`D-66123 Saarbrücken
`Germany
`Email: bernd.wolter@fraunhofer.de
`
`Chapter 19
`
`S. Tesfamariam*
`School of Engineering
`The University of British
`Columbia
`3333 University Way
`Kelowna, BC
`V1V 1V7
`Canada
`Email: solomon.tesfamariam@ubc.
`ca
`
`B. Martín-Pérez
`Department of Civil Engineering
`University of Ottawa
`161 Louis Pasteur St, Room A018
`P.O. Box 450, Stn A
`Ottawa, ON
`K1N 6N5
`Canada
`Email: bmartin@eng.uottawa.ca
`
`This book belongs to James Hall (james@chzfirm.com)
`
`Copyright Elsevier 2025
`
`© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2010
`
`Page 19 of 52
`
`

`

`
`
`Chapter 22
`
`Martin Schickert*
`Institute of Materials Research and
`Testing (MFPA Weimar) at the
`Bauhaus University Weimar
`Coudraystr. 4
`99423 Weimar
`Germany
`Email: martin.schickert@mfpa.de
`
`Contributor contact details
`
`xix
`
`Chapter 24
`
`Masayasu Ohtsu
`Graduate School of Science and
`Technology
`Kumamoto University
`2-39-1 Kurokami
`Kumamoto 860-8555
`Japan
`Email: ohtsu@gpo.kumamoto-u.
`ac.jp
`
`Dr rer. nat. Martin Krause
`Federal Institute for Materials
`Research and Testing (BAM)
`Fachgruppe VIII.2
`Unter den Eichen 87
`12205 Berlin
`Germany
`Email: martin.krause@bam.de
`
`Chapter 23
`
`Johannes Hugenschmidt
`EMPA
`Ueberlandstrasse 129
`8600 Duebendorf
`Switzerland
`Email: Johannes.hugenschmidt@
`empa.ch
`
`Chapter 25
`
`Xavier Dérobert*
`LCPC
`Route de Bouaye
`BP4129
`44341 Bouguenais
`France
`Email: xavier.derobert@lcpc.fr
`
`Bruno Berenger
`LRPC Angers
`23, av. de l’Amiral Chauvin
`BP 69
`49136 Les Ponts de Cé Cédex
`France
`
`This book belongs to James Hall (james@chzfirm.com)
`
`Copyright Elsevier 2025
`
`© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2010
`
`Page 20 of 52
`
`

`

`This page intentionally left blank
`
`This book belongs to James Hall (james@chzfirm.com)
`
`Copyright Elsevier 2025
`
`Page 21 of 52
`
`

`

`420
`
`Non-destructive evaluation of reinforced concrete structures
`
`The P wave velocity CP is the fastest, and it is often used to quantify
`damage and strength. For an infi nite, homogeneous, isotropic and uniform
`material, the P wave velocity is related to the dynamic modulus of elasticity
`Ed (kg m−2 s−1), mass density r (kg m−3) and Poisson’s ratio u of the material
`and is computed by the following equation (Krautkramer and Krautkramer,
`1990):
`
`=
`
`C
`
`P
`
`)
`−(
`ν
`1
`E
`d
`ν
`+(
`) −(
`)
`ρ ν
`1
`1 2
`
`[19.1]
`
`Although concrete is a heterogeneous and anisotropic medium and the
`rigorous application of equation [19.1] may not be valid, the P wave velocity
`is still considered to be strongly infl uenced by the material stiffness. The S
`wave velocity CS is related to the shear modulus of elasticity G (kg m−2 s−1)
`and r:
`
`S =
`C
`
`G
`ρ
`
`[19.2]
`
`When the stress wave is generated through ultrasonic pulse, the method is
`referred to as ultrasonic through-transmission (UTT), also known as ultra-
`sonic pulse velocity (ACI Committee 228, 1998). The UTT works with two
`transducers: a generator and a receiver (Fig. 19.2). The use of UTT in con-
`crete structures dates back to the 1940s at the Road Research Laboratory
`in the UK for thickness measurement of pavement layers (Jones, 1953) and
`
`Adjustable transducer support frames
`(Adjustable horizontally and vertically)
`
`Transducer
`clamp
`
`Transducers
`
`150 × 300 mm
`Cylinder
`
`Specimen support
`
`Base plate
`
`Wing nut
`
`19.2 Ultrasonic through-transmission set-up (Tesfamariam, 2000).
`
`This book belongs to James Hall (james@chzfirm.com)
`
`Copyright Elsevier 2025
`
`© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2010
`
`Page 22 of 52
`
`

`

`
`
`Stress wave propagation
`
`421
`
`at Ontario Hydro Canada for fi nding crack depths (Leslie and Cheesman,
`1949). This method is standardized in ASTM (ASTM Standard C597, 2002).
`When the stress wave is generated through an impact, the method is
`referred to as impact echo or IE (ACI Committee 228, 1998). In the IE
`technique, the stress is generated through an impact, and the signal is col-
`lected using an adjacent transducer. The development of IE in concrete
`applications dates back to the mid-80s (Sansalone and Streett, 1997).
`Various applications of UTT and IE in civil infrastructure systems have
`been reported, and a review is provided in section 19.3.
`Once the stress-wave signal generated through UTT or IE is collected,
`the interpretation of the signal can be undertaken in the time domain using
`velocity and attenuation coeffi cient, or in the frequency domain using
`quality factor (Q-factor). Since concrete is a heterogeneous material, its
`strength is affected by the elastic (aggregate, sand, and cement) and inelas-
`tic (air voids and fl aws) constituents. The velocity is used to measure the
`elastic component. The inelastic component can be quantifi ed through
`attenuation measures.
`
`19.2.1 Velocity
`For the UTT, the P velocity is measured from the time of fi rst arrival to
`the receiver. Calculation of the P wave velocity CP from the time of fi rst
`arrival is given by:
`
`[19.3]
`
`
`
`X t
`
`P =
`
`C
`
`where X is the distance that the P wave is propagated between source and
`receiver, and t is the travel time. For the impact–echo method, the P wave
`velocity is measured using the P wave resonance frequency fP as:
`CP = 2XfP
`where X is the distance between the top and bottom of a two-layer solid
`system. The velocity measurement can readily be related to the condition
`of the concrete (e.g. Table 19.2).
`
`[19.4]
`
`19.2.2 Attenuation coeffi cient
`As the stress wave propagates through concrete, the energy of the propa-
`gating wave decreases with increasing path length. The decrease in wave
`energy is the result of attenuation and divergence, caused by the absorption
`and scattering of the wave energy. Absorption and scattering losses can
`give information about the structural and physical properties of the medium
`(Blitz and Simpson, 1996). Absorption is the result of converting the stress
`
`This book belongs to James Hall (james@chzfirm.com)
`
`Copyright Elsevier 2025
`
`© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2010
`
`Page 23 of 52
`
`

`

`422
`
`Non-destructive evaluation of reinforced concrete structures
`
`Table 19.2 Correlation of pulse velocity and condition of the structure
`(Whitehurst, 1951a)
`
`Condition
`
`Excellent
`Generally good
`Questionable
`Generally poor
`Very poor
`
`It = Ioe−αt
`
`Pulse velocity
`>4570
`3600–4570
`3050–3660
`2130–3050
`<2130
`
`1.0
`
`0.5
`
`0.0
`
`−0.5
`
`−1.0
`
`−1.5
`
`Voltage (mV)
`
`19.3 Attenuation coeffi cient a in the time domain.
`
`Time (s)
`
`wave energy into heat, caused by friction as a result of particle movement.
`Scattering in concrete structures is a result of wave refl ection, refraction,
`diffraction, and mode conversion owing to dissimilar materials, microcracks
`and air voids. The stress wave intensity Id over a distance d can be described
`by an exponential function (Krautkramer and Krautkramer, 1990):
`Id = Ioe−add
`[19.5]
`where Io is the intensity at a distance 0 and ad is known as the attenuation
`coeffi cient (m−1). For a given distance, an exponential best-fi t curve can be
`fi tted through the time domain signal as depicted in Fig. 19.3, and the cor-
`responding attenuation coeffi cient a (s−1) can be calculated as:
`It = Ioe−αt
`where It is the intensity at time t.
`
`[19.6]
`
`This book belongs to James Hall (james@chzfirm.com)
`
`Copyright Elsevier 2025
`
`© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2010
`
`Page 24 of 52
`
`

`

`
`
`Stress wave propagation
`
`423
`
`Table 19.3 Correlation of attenuation coeffi cient and dam