Marques da Silva
`
`Multimedia Communications
`
`and Networking
`
`Electrical Engineering / Communications System Design
`
`The result of decades of research and international project experience, Multimedia
`Communications and Networking provides authoritative insight into recent developments in
`multimedia, digital communications, and networking services and technologies. Supplying you
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`The book starts with a review of the fundamental concepts, requirements, and constraints in
`networks and telecommunications. It describes channel disturbances that can hinder system
`performance—including noise, attenuation, distortion, and interferences—and provides
`transmission techniques for mitigating these limitations. Analyzing both cable and wireless
`transmission mediums, the book describes the network protocol architecture concept and
`includes coverage of twisted pairs, coaxial and optical fiber cables, wireless propagation,
`satellite communications, and terrestrial microwave systems.
`
`Facilitating the understanding required to participate in the development of current and next
`generation networks and services, this comprehensive reference:
`
`• Examines the range of network interconnections and WAN/MAN technologies,
`including synchronous optical networks (SONET), synchronous digital hierarchy
`(SDH), and third and next generation cellular systems (3G and 4G)
`• Describes local area network (LAN) theory and technology, including data link
`layers and virtual LANs
`• Explores network and transport layers, such as addressing, routing protocols,
`and IPv4 and IPv6 algorithms
`• Covers TCP/IP services and applications
`• Investigates different authentication and cryptographic systems, including digital
`signature, SSL, TLS, IPSEC, and public key infrastructure
`
`Walking you through the planning, design, and development ofmultimedia, telecommunications,
`and networking systems, the book provides a quick and easy way to develop and refine the
`skills required in the field. It clearly explains the principles and corresponding techniques
`you need to know to implement network security. The many examples and end-of-chapter
`questions also make it suitable for undergraduate and graduate-level computer science and
`electrical engineering courses.
`
`www.crcpress.com
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`K13470
`
`ISBN: 978-1-4398-7484-4
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`K13470 cvr mech.indd 1
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`p. 1
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`

`

`Multimedia
`Communications
`and Networking
`
`Genius Sports Ex. 1024
`p. 2
`
`

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`Delay Tolerant Networks: Protocols and
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`ISBN 978-1-4200-8844-1
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`IP Telephony Interconnection Reference:
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`Mohamed Boucadair, Isabel Borges, Pedro Miguel
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`ISBN 978-1-4398-5178-4
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`Media Networks: Architectures, Applications,
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`Mobile Opportunistic Networks: Architectures,
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`Mobile Web 2.0: Developing and Delivering
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`Music Emotion Recognition
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`Near Field Communications Handbook
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`Physical Principles of Wireless Communications,
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`Security of Mobile Communications
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`Service Delivery Platforms: Developing and
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`TV Content Analysis: Techniques and
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`Genius Sports Ex. 1024
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`

`Multimedia
`Communications
`and Networking
`
`Mário Marques da Silva
`
`Genius Sports Ex. 1024
`p. 4
`
`

`

`CRC Press
`Taylor & Francis Group
`6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300
`Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742
`© 2012 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
`CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business
`No claim to original U.S. Government works
`Version Date: 20120202
`International Standard Book Number-13: 978-1-4398-7485-1 (eBook - PDF)
`This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reasonable efforts have been
`made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and publisher cannot assume responsibility for the valid-
`ity of all materials or the consequences of their use. The authors and publishers have attempted to trace the copyright
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`
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`To my family and friends
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`

`Contents
`
`P r e fac e
`a b o u t t h e au t h o r
`
`c h a P t e r 1 a n I n t r o d u c t I o n t o M u lt I M e d I a c o M M u n I cat I o n s
`a n d n e t w o r k I n g
`1.1
`Fundamentals of Communications
`1.1.1 Analog and Digital Signals
`1.1.2 Modulator and Demodulator
`1.1.3 Transmission Mediums
`1.1.4
`Synchronous and Asynchronous Communication Systems
`1.1.5
`Simplex and Duplex Communications
`1.1.6 Communications and Networks
`1.1.7
`Switching Modes
`1.1.7.1 Circuit Switching
`1.1.7.2 Packet Switching
`1.1.8 Connection Modes
`1.1.8.1 Connection Oriented
`1.1.8.2 Connectionless
`1.1.9 Network Coverage Areas
`1.1.10 Network Topologies
`1.1.11 Classification of Media and Traffic
`Present and Future of Telecommunications
`1.2.1 The Convergence
`1.2.2 Collaborative Era of the Network Applications
`1.2.3 Transition Toward the Collaborative Era
`End of Chapter Questions
`c h a P t e r 2 n e t w o r k P r o t o c o l a r c h I t e c t u r e s
`2.1
`Introduction to Protocol Architecture Concept
`2.2 Open System Interconnection–Reference Model
`2.2.1 The Seven Layer Open System Interconnection–Reference Model
`2.2.1.1 Physical Layer
`2.2.1.2 Data Link Layer
`
`1.2
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`xv
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`v iii
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`C o ntent s
`
`2.2.1.3 Network Layer
`2.2.1.4 Transport Layer
`2.2.1.5
`Session Layer
`2.2.1.6 Presentation Layer
`2.2.1.7 Application Layer
`2.2.2 The Service Access Point
`2.3 An Overview of TCP/IP Architecture
`2.3.1 Application Layer
`2.3.2 Transport Layer
`2.3.3 Network Layer
`2.3.4 Data Link Layer
`2.3.5 Physical Layer
`End of Chapter Questions
`c h a P t e r 3 c h a n n e l I M Pa I r M e n t s
`3.1
`Shannon Capacity
`3.2 Attenuation
`3.3 Noise Sources
`3.3.1 Atmospheric Noise
`3.3.2 Man-Made Noise
`3.3.3 Extraterrestrial Noise
`3.3.4 Thermal Noise
`3.3.5 Electronic Noise
`3.4 The Influence of the Transmission Channel
`3.4.1 Delay and Phase Shift
`3.4.2 Distortion
`3.4.3 Equalization
`Interference Sources
`3.5.1
`Intersymbol Interference
`3.5.1.1 Nyquist Intersymbol Interference Criterion
`3.5.2 Multiple Access Interference
`3.5.3 Co-Channel Interference
`3.5.4 Adjacent Channel Interference
`End of Chapter Questions
`c h a P t e r 4 ca b l e tr a n s M I s s I o n M e d I u M s
`4.1 Twisted Pairs
`4.1.1 Characteristics
`4.1.2 Types of Protection
`4.1.3 Categories
`4.2 Coaxial Cables
`4.2.1 Characteristics
`4.3 Optical Fibers
`4.3.1 Characteristics
`4.3.2 Categories
`End of Chapter Questions
`c h a P t e r 5 wI r e l e s s tr a n s M I s s I o n M e d I u M s
`5.1 Wireless Propagation
`5.1.1 Direct Wave Propagation
`5.1.1.1
`Free Space Path Loss
`5.1.1.2 Link Budget Calculations
`5.1.1.3 Carrier-to-Noise Ratio Calculations
`
`3.5
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`C o ntent s
`
`5.2
`
`5.1.2 Wireless Propagation Effects
`5.1.2.1 Reflection
`5.1.2.2 Diffraction
`5.1.2.3
`Scattering
`5.1.3 Fading
`Shadowing Fading
`5.1.3.1
`5.1.3.2 Multipath Fading
`5.1.4 Groundwave Propagation
`5.1.5
`Ionospheric Propagation
`Satellite Communication Systems
`5.2.1 Physical Analysis of Satellite Orbits
`5.2.2 Characteristics of Different Orbits
`5.2.2.1 Geostationary Earth Orbit
`5.2.2.2 Medium and Low Earth Orbit
`5.2.2.3 Highly Elliptical Orbit
`Satellite’s Link Budget Analysis
`5.2.3
`5.3 Terrestrial Microwave Systems
`End of Chapter Questions
`c h a P t e r 6 s o u r c e c o d I n g a n d tr a n s M I s s I o n te c h n I q u e s
`6.1
`Source Coding
`6.1.1 Voice
`6.1.1.1 Analog Audio
`6.1.1.2 Digital Audio
`6.1.2 Video
`6.1.2.1 Analog Video
`6.1.2.2 Digital Video
`6.2 Line Coding
`6.2.1 Return to Zero
`6.2.2 Non-Return to Zero
`6.2.3 Non-Return to Zero Inverted
`6.2.4 Bipolar Alternate Mark Inversion
`6.2.5
`Pseudoternary
`6.2.6 Manchester
`6.2.7 Differential Manchester
`6.2.8 Two Binary One Quaternary
`6.3 Modulation Schemes
`6.3.1 Amplitude Shift Keying
`6.3.2
`Frequency Shift Keying
`6.3.3
`Phase Shift Keying
`6.3.4 Multilevel Quadrature Amplitude Modulation
`
`Constellations
`6.4 Coding Efficiency of a Symbol
`6.5
`Scrambling of Signals
`6.6 Multiplexing
`6.6.1
`Frequency Division Multiplexing
`6.6.2 Time Division Multiplexing
`End of Chapter Questions
`c h a P t e r 7 a dva n c e d tr a n s M I s s I o n te c h n I q u e s t o s u P P o r t
`c u r r e n t a n d e M e r g e n t M u lt I M e d I a s e rv I c e s
`7.1 Advances in Wireless Systems and Their Technical Demands
`7.2
`Spread Spectrum Communications
`
`i x
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`x
`
`C o ntent s
`
`7.3 Code Division Multiple Access
`7.3.1 General Model
`7.3.2 Narrowband CDMA
`7.3.3 Wideband CDMA
`7.4 Orthogonal Frequency-Division Multiplexing
`7.5
`Single Carrier–Frequency Domain Equalization
`7.5.1
`Iterative Block-Decision Feedback Equalizer Receivers
`7.6 Diversity Combining Algorithms
`7.6.1
`Selection Combining
`7.6.2 Maximal Ratio Combining
`7.6.3 Equal Gain Combining
`7.6.4 MSE-Based Combining
`7.7 RAKE Receiver
`7.8 Multiple Input Multiple Output
`7.8.1
`Space-Time Block Coding
`7.8.2 Open/Closed-Loop Techniques for Flat Fading
`7.8.2.1 Open-Loop Techniques
`7.8.2.2 Closed-Loop Techniques
`7.8.3 Multilayer Transmission
`7.8.3.1
`System Description of the V-BLAST Scheme
`Applied to WCDMA Signals
`Space Division Multiple Access
`7.8.4
`7.8.5 Beamforming
`7.9 Multiresolution Transmission Schemes
`7.9.1 Hierarchical QAM Constellations
`7.9.2 Macrodiversity
`7.9.3 Multihop Relays
`End of Chapter Questions
`c h a P t e r 8 c e l lu l a r c o M M u n I cat I o n s
`8.1 Cellular Concept
`8.1.1 Macrocell
`8.1.2 Microcell
`8.1.3 Picocell
`8.1.4 Femtocell
`8.1.5 Power Control
`8.2 Evolution of Cellular Systems
`8.3 UMTS
`8.4 Long-Term Evolution
`8.5 WiMAX-IEEE802.16
`8.6
`Fourth Generation of Cellular Communications
`End of Chapter Questions
`c h a P t e r 9 tr a n s P o r t n e t w o r ks
`9.1 Circuit-Switching Transport Networks
`9.1.1 FDM Hierarchy
`9.1.2 Plesiochronous Digital Hierarchy
`9.1.3
`Synchronous Digital Hierarchies
`9.1.3.1
`SDH/SONET Network
`9.1.3.2
`SDH/SONET Frame Format
`9.1.4 Digital Subscriber Line
`9.1.5 Data over Cable Service Interface Specification
`
`171
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`

`C o ntent s
`
`9.2
`
`Packet-Switching Transport Networks
`9.2.1 Asynchronous Transfer Mode
`9.2.1.1 The B-ISDN Reference Model
`9.2.1.2 ATM Network
`9.2.1.3 ATM Cell Format
`9.2.2 Multiprotocol Label Switching
`9.2.2.1 The MPLS Network
`9.2.2.2 MPLS Packet Format
`End of Chapter Questions
`c h a P t e r 10 data l I n k l ay e r
`10.1 LAN Devices
`10.1.1 The Hub
`10.1.2 The Bridge
`10.1.3 The Switch
`10.1.4 Spanning Tree Protocol
`10.2 Logical Link Control SubLayer
`10.2.1 Error Control Techniques
`10.2.1.1 Hamming Distance
`10.2.1.2 Error Detection Codes
`10.2.1.3 Error Correction Codes
`10.2.2 Automatic Repeat Request
`10.2.2.1 Stop and Wait Automatic Repeat Request
`10.2.2.2 Go Back N Automatic Repeat Request
`10.2.2.3 Selective Reject Automatic Repeat Request
`10.2.3 Flow Control Techniques
`10.2.3.1 Stop and Wait
`10.2.3.2 Sliding Window
`10.3 Link and Network Control Protocols
`10.4 Logical Link Control Protocols
`10.4.1 High Level Data Link Control Protocol
`10.4.2 Point-to-Point Protocol
`10.4.3 IEEE 802.2 Protocol
`10.5 Medium Access Control Sublayer
`10.6 Medium Access Control Protocols
`10.6.1 IEEE 802.3 Protocol
`10.6.1.1 Maximum Collision Domain Diameter
`10.6.1.2 Physical Layer Used in IEEE 802.3 Networks
`10.6.2 IEEE 802.5 Protocol
`10.6.3 Fiber Distribution Data Interface Protocol
`10.6.4 IEEE 802.11 Protocol
`10.6.5 Digital Video Broadcast Standard
`10.7 Virtual Local Area Networks
`End of Chapter Questions
`c h a P t e r 11 n e t w o r k l ay e r
`11.1
`Internet Protocol Version 4
`11.1.1 Internet Protocol Version 4 Classfull Addressing
`11.1.2 Internet Protocol Version 4 Classless Addressing
`11.1.3 Network and Port Address Translation
`11.1.4 Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol
`11.1.5 Internet Protocol Version 4 Datagram
`
`x i
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`x ii
`
`C o ntent s
`
`11.2
`
`Internet Protocol Version 6
`11.2.1 Internet Protocol Version 6 Addressing
`11.2.2 Internet Protocol Version 6 Packet
`11.3 Routing
`11.3.1 Routing Algorithms and Protocols
`11.3.1.1 Distance Vector Protocols
`11.3.1.2 Link State Protocols
`11.3.1.3 Dijkstra’s Algorithm
`11.3.1.4 Administrative and Metric Distances
`11.3.2 Internet Control Message Protocol
`11.3.3 Fragmentation and Reassembling
`11.4 Cisco Internetwork Operating System
`11.4.1 Introduction to Cisco Internetwork Operating System
`11.4.2 Basic Configuration of Routers and Switches
`11.4.2.1 Configuration Mode
`11.4.2.2 Line Configuration Submode
`11.4.2.3 Interface Configuration Submode
`11.4.3 Network Configuration in Routers
`11.4.3.1 Static Route Configuration
`11.4.3.2 Routing Information Protocol Configuration
`11.4.3.3 Open Shortest Path First Configuration
`11.4.4 Configuration of Virtual Local Area Networks
`End of Chapter Questions
`c h a P t e r 12 tr a n s P o r t l ay e r
`12.1 Transmission Control Protocol
`12.2 User Datagram Protocol
`12.3
`Integrated and Differentiated Service
`12.3.1 Integrated Services
`12.3.2 Differentiated Services
`End of Chapter Questions
`c h a P t e r 13 s e rv I c e s a n d a P P l I cat I o n s
`13.1 Web Browsing
`13.1.1 Hypertext Transfer Protocol
`13.2 Electronic Mail
`13.2.1 Simple Mail Transfer Protocol
`13.3 File Transfer
`13.3.1 File Transfer Protocol
`IP Telephony and IP Videoteleconference
`13.4.1 H.323
`13.4.2 Session Initiation Protocol
`13.5 Network Management
`13.5.1 Simple Network Management Protocol
`13.6 Names Resolution
`13.6.1 Domain Name Server
`End of Chapter Questions
`c h a P t e r 14 n e t w o r k s e c u r I t y
`14.1 Overview of Network Security
`14.2 Security Services
`14.2.1 Confidentiality
`14.2.1.1 Eavesdropping
`
`13.4
`
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`14.2.1.2 Snooping
`14.2.1.3 Interception
`14.2.2 Integrity
`14.2.2.1 Man-in-the-Middle
`14.2.3 Availability
`14.2.3.1 Denial of Service
`14.2.4 Authenticity
`14.2.4.1 Replay Attack
`14.3 Accountability
`14.3.1 Identification
`14.3.2 Authentication
`14.3.3 Authorization
`14.3.4 Access Control
`14.3.5 Monitoring
`14.3.6 Registration
`14.3.7 Auditing
`14.4 Risk Management
`14.5 Protective Measures
`14.5.1 Symmetric Cryptography
`14.5.1.1 Symmetric Cryptographic Systems
`14.5.2 Asymmetric Cryptography
`14.5.3 Digital Signature
`14.5.4 Digital Certificates
`14.5.5 Public Key Infrastructure
`14.5.6 Hybrid Cryptography
`14.5.6.1 Secure Sockets Layer and Transport Layer Security
`14.5.6.2 Security Architecture for IP
`14.6 Network Architectures
`14.7 Virtual Private Networks
`End of Chapter Questions
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`a n n e x a
`a n n e x b
`a n n e x c
`r e f e r e n c e s
`I n d e x
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`Preface
`
`This textbook aims to present a detailed and comprehensive description of the most
`important state-of-the-art fundamentals and system details in the fields of multi-
`media, networking, digital communications, and network security. It describes several
`subjects that are key aspects in the development and understanding of current and
`emergent services.
`The objective of this textbook is to concentrate in a single book the author’s view
`about current and emergent multimedia, digital communications, and networking
`services and technologies. Different bibliographic sources normally cover each one of
`these topics independently, without the required relationship. On the one hand, the
`proposed book allows the reader to reduce the time and cost required to learn and
`improve skills and knowledge in the covered fields, with a relationship between the
`covered topics. Moreover, this book presents a compilation of the latest developments
`in the area, which is the outcome of several years of research and participation in many
`international projects.
`This textbook covers most of the relevant subjects with examples and end of chapter
`questions, properly designed to be used for BSc or MSc courses in computer science
`or electrical engineering. The approach used in this textbook aims to facilitate the
`learning of the covered subjects by students of several disciplines such as multimedia,
`networking, telecommunications, and network security. Moreover, this book may also
`be used by academic, institutional, or industrial professionals to support the planning,
`design, and development of multimedia, telecommunications, or networking systems.
`
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`About the Author
`
`Mario Marques da Silva is a professor at Universidade Autónoma de Lisboa
`(CESITI) and at the Portuguese Naval Academy (CINAV). He is a researcher at the
`Portuguese Instituto de Telecomunicações. He received his BSc in electrical engineer-
`ing in 1992 and MSc and PhD degrees in telecommunications/electrical engineer-
`ing, respectively, in 1999 and 2005, both from the Universidade Técnica de Lisboa.
`Between 2005 and 2008, he was with NATO Air Command Control & Management
`Agency (NACMA) in Brussels (Belgium), where he managed the deployable com-
`munications of the new Air Command and Control System Program. He has been
`involved in several telecommunications projects, either as a researcher or as project
`leader, including the involvement in activities such as research, architecture, develop-
`ment, analysis, simulation and testing of networking, HF, V/UHF, satellite and cellu-
`lar/UMTS communications systems. His research interests include networking (e.g.,
`TCP/IP, network security, mobile ad-hoc networking) and mobile communications,
`including block transmission techniques (OFDM, SC-FDE), WCDMA, multiuser
`detection, interference cancellation, space–time coding, MIMO systems, smart and
`adaptive antennas, channel estimation, and software-defined radio. He is the author
`of the book Transmission Techniques for Emergent Multicast and Broadcast Systems (CRC
`Press, 2010) and of several dozen journal and conference papers. Mario Marques da
`Silva is a member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) and
`a member of Armed Forces Communications and Electronics Association (AFCEA).
`He is also a reviewer of many international scientific journals and conferences.
`
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`1
`An IntroductIon to MultIMedIA
`coMMunIcAtIons And networkIng
`
`1.1 Fundamentals of Communications
`Communication systems are used to enable the exchange of data between two or more
`entities (humans or machines). As can be seen from Figure 1.1, data consists of a rep-
`resentation of an information source, whose transformation is performed by a source
`encoder. An example of a source encoder is a thermometer, which converts tempera-
`tures (information source) into voltages (data). A telephone can also be viewed as a
`source encoder, which converts the analog voice (information source) into a voltage
`(data) before being transmitted along the telephone network (transmission medium).
`In case the information source is analog and the transmission medium is digital, a
`CODEC (coder and decoder) is employed to perform the digitization. A VOCODER
`(voice coder) is a codec specific for voice, whose functionality consists of converting
`analog voice into digital at the transmitter side and the reciprocal at the receiver side.
`The emitter of data consists of an entity responsible for the insertion of data into
`the communication system and for the conversion of data into signals. Note that sig-
`nals are transmitted, not data. Signals consist of an adaptation* of data, such that
`their transmission is facilitated in accordance with the used transmission medium.
`Similarly, the receiver is responsible for converting the received signals into data.
`The received signals correspond to the transmitted signals subject to attenuation
`and distortion and added with noise and interferences. These channel impairments
`originate that the received signal differs from that transmitted. In the case of analog
`signals, the resulting signal levels do not exactly translate the original information
`source. In the case of digital signals, the channel impairments originate corrupted
`bits. In both cases, the referred channel impairments originate a degradation of the
`signal-to-noise plus interference ratio (SNIR).† A common performance indicator of
`
`* Signals can be, for example, a set of predefined voltages, which represent bits used in transmission.
`S
`† In linear units, the SNIR is mathematically given by SNIR =
`N I+ , where S stands for the power of
`signal, N expresses the power of noise, and I the power of interferences. For the sake of simplicity, the
`SNIR is normally referred to as only SNR (signal-to-noise ratio), but where the interference is also taken
`into account (in this case N stands for the power of noise and interferences). Furthermore, both SNIR
`S
`(or SNR) are normally expressed in logarithmic units as SNIRdB =
`.
`log
`10
`+
`N I
`
`
`
`10
`
`1
`
`
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`2
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`MultiMedia C o MMuniC atio ns and ne t wo rkin g
`
`Information
`source
`
`Source
`encoder
`
`Data
`
`Emitter
`
`Transmitted
`signal
`
`Transmission
`medium
`
`Received
`signal
`
`Receiver
`
`Data
`
`Source
`decoder
`
`Received
`information
`
`Figure 1.1 A generic block diagram of a communication system.
`
`digital communication systems is the bit error rate (BER). This corresponds to the
`number of corrupted bits divided by the total number of transmitted bits over a certain
`time period.
`A common definition associated with information is knowledge. It consists of a
`person’s ability to have access to the right information at the right time. The conver-
`sion between information and knowledge can be automatically performed using infor-
`mation systems, whereas the information can be captured by sensors and distributed
`using communication systems.
`
`1.1.1 Analog and Digital Signals
`Analog signals present a continuous amplitude variation over time. An example of an
`analog signal is the voice. Contrarily, digital signals present time discontinuity (e.g.,
`voltages or light pulses). The bits* generated in a computer are examples of digital data.
`The text is another example of digital data. Examples of analog and digital signals are
`depicted in Figure 1.2.
`Digital signals present several advantages (relating to analog). The following advan-
`tages can be listed:
`• Error control is possible in digital signals: corrupted bits can be detected and/
`or corrected.
`• Since they present only two discrete values, the consequences of channel
`impairments can be more easily detected and avoided (as compared to analog
`signals).
`• Digital signals can be regenerated, almost eliminating the effects of channel
`impairments. Contrarily, the amplification process of analog signals results in
`the amplification of signals, noise, and interferences, keeping the SNR rela-
`tionship unchanged.†
`• The digital components are normally less expensive than the analog
`components.
`• Digital signals facilitate cryptography and multiplexing.
`• Digital signals can be used to transport different sources of information (voice,
`data, multimedia, etc.) in a transparent manner.
`
`* With logic states 0 or 1.
`† In fact, the amplification process results even in a degradation of the SNR, as it adds the amplifier’s
`internal noise to the signal at its input. This subject is detailed in Chapter 3.
`
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`

`intro du C tio n
`
`3
`
`Analog signal
`
`Digital signal
`
`Amplitude
`
`Amplitude
`
`Time
`(a)
`Figure 1.2 Example of (a) analog and (b) digital signals.
`
`Time
`(b)
`
`However, digital signals present an important disadvantage:
`• For the same information source, the bandwidth required to accommodate a
`digital signal is typically higher than the analog counterpart.* This results in
`a higher level of attenuation and distortion.
`
`1.1.2 Modulator and Demodulator
`As can be seen from Figure 1.3, when the source (e.g., a computer) generates a digi-
`tal stream of data and the transmission medium is analog, a modem (modulator and
`demodulator) is used to perform the required conversion. The modulator converts dig-
`ital data into analog signals, whereas the demodulator (at the receiver) converts ana-
`log signals into digital data. An example of an analog transmission medium is radio
`transmission, whose signals consist of electromagnetic waves (presenting a continuous
`variation in time).
`A modem (e.g., asynchronous digital subscriber line [ADSL] or cable modem)
`is responsible for modulating a carrier wave with bits, using a certain modulation
`scheme.† The reverse of this operation is performed at the receiver side. Moreover, a
`modem allows sending a signal modulated around a certain carrier frequency, which
`can be another reason for using such device.
`In case the data is digital and the transmission medium is also digital, a modem is
`normally not employed, as the conversion between digital and analog does not need
`to be performed. In this case, a line encoder/decoder (sometimes also referred to as
`digital modem, nevertheless not accurately) is used. This device adapts the original
`digital data to the digital transmission medium‡ and adapts parameters such as levels,
`pulse duration, and so on. Note that in using such digital encoders, the signals are
`transmitted in the baseband.§
`
`* As an example, analog voice is transmitted in a 3.4 kHz bandwidth, whereas the digital pulse code
`modulation requires a bandwidth of 32 kHz (64 kbps).
`† Using amplitude, frequency, or phase shift keying. Advanced modems make use of a combination of
`these elementary modulation schemes.
`‡ Using line codes such as return to zero, nonreturn to zero, Manchester, and so on (as detailed in
`Chapter 6).
`§ Instead of carrier-modulated (bandpass), as performed by a modem.
`
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`4
`
`MultiMedia C o MMuniC atio ns and ne t wo rkin g
`
`Information
`source
`
`Digital
`data
`
`Source
`encoder
`
`Modem
`
`Analog
`signal
`
`Analog
`transmission
`medium
`
`Analog
`signal
`
`Digital
`data
`
`Modem
`
`Source
`decoder
`
`Received
`information
`
`Figure 1.3 A generic communication system incorporating a modem.
`
`The output of a line encoder consists of a digital signal, as it comprises discrete
`voltages that encode the source logic states. Consequently, it can be stated that the
`line encoder is used when the transmission medium is digital. On the other hand, the
`output of a modulator consists of an analog signal, as it modulates a carrier, which is
`an analog signal.
`In case of high data rate, the required bandwidth necessary to accommodate such
`signal is also high,* and the medium may originate high level of attenuation or distor-
`tion at limited frequency components of the signal. In such case, the use of a modem
`can be a good choice, which allows the modulation of the signal around a certain car-
`rier frequency. The carrier frequency can be carefully selected such that the channel
`impairments in the frequencies around it (corresponding to the signal bandwidth) do
`not seriously degrade the SNR. The reader should refer to Chapter 6 for a detailed
`description of the modulation schemes used in modems and a description of digital
`encoding techniques.
`
`1.1.3 Transmission Mediums
`Transmission mediums can be classified as cable or wireless. Exa