SIPTICAL SOCIETY OF AMERIC,
`
`
`HANDBOOK OF
`
`USS. Patent No. 9,955,551
`
`SUNTMAONN 8 ‘e RAY eae
`aSECOND EDITION:a|
`ii
`
`VOLUME:
`
`VWGoOA EX1047
`
`0001
`
`VWGoA EX1047
`U.S. Patent No. 9,955,551
`
`

`

`
`
`HANDBOOK OF
`OPTICS
`
`VolumeIll
`Classical Optics, Vision Optics, X-Ray Optics
`
`
`Second Edition
`
`Sponsoredby the
`OPTICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA
`
`Michael Bass Editorin chief
`School of Optics / The Center for Research and Education in Optics and Lasers (CREOL),
`University of Central Florida
`Orlando, Florida
`
`Jay M. Enoch Associate Editor
`School of Optometry, University of California at Berkeley
`Berkeley, California
`and
`
`Department of Ophthalmology
`University of California at San Francisco
`San Francisco, California
`
`Eric W. Van Stryland Associate Editor
`School of Optics / The Center for Research and Education in Optics and Lasers (CREOL),
`University of Central Florida
`Orlando, Florida
`
`William L. Wolfe Associate Editor
`
`Optical Sciences Center, University of Arizona
`Tucson, Arizona
`
`McGRAW-HILL
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`
`0002
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`

`

`McGraw-Hill
`A Division of The McGraw-Hill Companies
`
`Copyright © 2001 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Printed in
`the United States of America. Except as permitted under the United States Copyright
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`by any means,or stored in a data baseor retrieval system, without the prior written per-
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`234567890 DOC/IDOC 0654321
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`ISBN 0-07-135408-5
`
`!
`
`The sponsoring editor for this book was Stephen S. Chapman and the production super-
`visor was Sherri Souffrance. It was set in Times Roman by North Market Street Graphics.
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`sional should be sought.
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`McGraw-Hill Companies,
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`from sources
`believed to be reliable. However, neither McGraw-Hill nor its
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`published herein, and neither McGraw-Hill norits authors shall be
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`0003
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`0003
`
`

`

`
`
`CONTENTS
`
`Contributors—xiii
`xv
`Preface
`
`Part 1. Classical Optics
`
`Chapter1.
`
`Adaptive Optics Robert OQ. Fugate
`
`Glossary / 1.3
`Introduction / 1.4
`/ 1.5
`The Adaptive Optics Concept
`The Nature of Turbulence and Adaptive Optics Requirements / 1.8
`AO Hardware and Software Implementation / 1.23
`Howto Design an Adaptive Optical System / 1.40
`References / 1.48
`
`Chapter 2.
`
`Nonimaging Optics: Concentration andIllumination
`William Cassarly
`
`2.1
`2.2
`23
`2.4
`2.5
`2.6
`2.7
`
`Introduction / 2]
`Basic Calculations / 2.2
`Software Modeling of Nonimaging Systems / 2.6
`Basic Building Blocks / 2.8
`Concentration / 2./2
`Uniformity and Illumination / 2.23
`References / 2.42
`
`Chapter 3.
`
`VolumeScattering in Random Media Aristide Dogariu
`
`Glossary / 3.]
`Introduction / 3.2
`General Theoryof Scattering / 3.3
`Single Scattering / 3.4
`Multiple Scattering / 3.8
`References / 3.1/6
`
`Solid-State Cameras Gerald C. Holst
`
`Glossary / 4]
`Introduction / 4.2
`Imaging System Applications / 43
`Charge-Coupled Device Array Architecture / 43
`Charge Injection Device / 4.6
`Complementary Metal-Oxide Semiconductor
`
`/ 48
`
`0004
`
`0004
`
`

`

`iv
`
`CONTENTS
`
`4.7 Array Performance / 49
`4.8
`Camera Performance / 4/3
`49 Modulation Transfer Function / 4./5
`4.10 Resolution / 4/5
`4.11
`Sampling / 4.17
`4.12 Storage, Analysis, and Display / 4.20
`4.13 References / 42]
`
`
`
`Chapter 5. Xerographic Systems Howard Stark 5.1
`
`5.1
`5.2
`5.3.
`5.4
`5.5
`5.6
`5.7.
`5.8
`5.9
`
`Introduction and Overview / 5./
`Creation of the Latent Image / 5.2
`Development
`/ 5.5
`Transfer
`/ 5.10
`Fusing / 5.10
`Cleaning and Erasing / 5.11
`Control Systems / 5.//
`Color
`/ 5.1]
`References / 5.13
`
`Chapter 6. Photographic Materials
`
`John D. Baloga
`
`Introduction / 6./
`6.1
`/ 6.2
`The Optics of Photographic Films
`6.2
`The Photophysics of Silver Halide Light Detectors / 6.8
`6.3.
`The Stability of Photographic Image Dyes Toward Light Fade / 6.10
`6.4
`Photographic Spectral Sensitizers / 6.14
`6.5
`6.6 General Characteristics of Photographic Films
`6.7
`References / 6.29
`
`/ 6.19
`
`Chapter 7. Radiometry and Photometry: Units and Conversions
`James M. Palmer
`
`Glossary / 7./
`7.1
`Introduction and Background / 7.2
`7.2
`Symbols, Units, and Nomenclature in Radiometry / 7.5
`7.3.
`Symbols, Units, and Nomenclature in Photometry /
`7.6
`7.4
`Conversion of Radiometric Quantities to Photometric Quantities / 7.J/2
`7.5
`Conversion of Photometric Quantities to Radiometric Quantities / 7.13
`7.6
`Radiometric/Photometric Normalization / 7.15
`7.7
`7.8 Other Weighting Functions and Conversions / 7.18
`7.9
`Bibliography / 7.18
`7.10 Further Reading / 7.19
`
`6.1
`
`7.1
`
`:
`|
`
`Part 2. Vision Optics
`
`Chapter 8. Update to Part 7 (“Vision”) of Volume| of the Handbookof Optics
`8.1
`Theodore E. Cohn
`
`8.1
`8.2
`
`Introduction /
`Bibliography /
`
`8&3
`8&4
`
`0005
`
`0005
`
`

`

`Chapter 9. Biological Waveguides Vasudevan Lakshminarayanan
`and Jay M. Enoch
`
`9.1
`
`CONTENTS
`
`v
`
`9.1
`9.2
`D3
`9.4
`95
`9.6
`9.7
`9.8
`9.9
`9.10
`9.11
`9.12
`
`‘
`
`Glossary / 9./
`\
`Introduction / 9.2
`Waveguiding in Retinal Photoreceptors andthe Stiles-Crawford Effect
`Waveguides and Photoreceptors / 9.3
`/ 9.5
`Photoreceptor Orientation and Alignment
`Introduction to the Models and Theoretical Implications / 9.7
`Quantitative Observations of Single Receptors / 9.15
`Waveguide Modal Patterns Found in Monkey/HumanRetinal Receptors / 9/8
`Light Guide Effect in Cochlear Hair Cells and Human Hair
`/ 9.24
`Fiber-Optic Plant Tissues / 9.26
`Summary / 9.29
`References / 9.29
`
`/ 9.3
`
`Chapter 10. Adaptive Optics in Retinal Microscopy and Vision
`Donald T. Miller
`
`10.1
`
`10.1
`10.2
`10.3
`10.4
`10.5
`10.6
`10.7
`10.8
`10.9
`
`Glossary / 10.1
`Introduction /
`/0.2
`/0.4
`The Mathematics of the Eye’s Aberrations /
`The Effect of Diffraction and Aberrations / 10.4
`Correcting the Eye’s Aberrations / 10.5
`Retinal Microscopy with Adaptive Optics /
`Adaptive Optics and Vision / 10.9
`Medical and Scientific Applications / 10.12
`References / 10.14
`
`/0.9
`
`Chapter 11. Assessmentof Refraction and Refractive Errors William F Long,
`Ralph Garzia, and Jeffrey L. Weaver
`
`11.1
`
`11.1
`J/1.J
`Glossary /
`11.2
`Introduction / JJ.]
`11.3
`Refractive Errors / 11.2
`11.4
`Assessing Refractive Error
`11.5
`Correcting Refractive Error
`Contact Lenses / 11.10
`11.6
`11.7
`Cataract, Aphakic, and Pseudophakic Corrections /
`11.8
`Aniseikonia and Anisophoria / 11.14
`11.9
`Refractive Surgery / 11.15
`11.10 Myopia Research and Visual Training /
`11.11 References / 11.18
`
`/ 11.3
`/ 11.6
`
`J/1./7
`
`/1.J3
`
`Chapter 12. Binocular Vision Factors That Influence Optical Design
`Clifton Schor
`
`12.1
`
`12.1
`12.2
`12.3
`12.4
`
`12.5
`
`Glossary / 12.1
`Combining the Images in the Two Eyes into One Perception of the Visual Field /
`Distortion of Space by Monocular Magnification / 12.13
`Distortion of Space Perception from Interocular Anisomagnification (Unequal Binocular
`Magnification)
`/ 12.17
`Distortions of Space from Convergence Responses to Prism / 12.20
`
`/2.3
`
`0006
`
`0006
`
`

`

`vi
`
`CONTENTS
`
`/2.20
`12.6 Eye Movements /
`/2.2/
`12.7 Coordination and Alignment of the Two Eyes /
`12.8 Effects of Lenses and Prism on Vergence and Phoria / 12.25
`12.9 Prism-Induced Errors of Eye Alignment
`/ 12.28
`12.10 Head and Eye Responses to Direction (Gaze Control)
`12.11 Focus and Responses to Distance / 12.30
`12.12 Video Headsets, Heads-Up Displays, and Virtual Reality: Impact on Binocular
`Vision / 12.3]
`12.13 References / 12.36
`
`/ 12.29
`
`John S. Werner
`Chapter 13. Optics and Vision of the Aging Eye
`
`and Brooke E. Schefrin 13.1
`
`13.1 Glossary / J3.]
`13.2
`Introduction / 13.2
`/3.2
`/
`13.3. The Graying of the Planet
`13.4 The Senescent Eye and the Optical Image / 13.5
`13.5 Senescent Changes in Vision / 13.12
`13.6 Age-Related Ocular Diseases Affecting Visual Function / 13.19
`13.7 The Aging World from the Optical Point of View / 13.22
`13.8 Conclusions / 13.25
`13.9 References / 13.25
`
`Chapter 14. Radiometry and Photometry Review for Vision Optics
`Yoshi Ohno
`
`14.1
`
`/4.]
`Introduction /
`14.1
`/4./
`14.2. Basis of Physical Photometry /
`/4.3
`14.3. Photometric Base Unit—The Candela /
`14.4 Quantities and Units in Photometry and Radiometry / 143
`14.5 Principles in Photometry and Radiometry / 14.8
`14.6 Practice in Photometry and Radiometry / 14.12
`14.7 References / 14.12
`
`Chapter 15. Ocular Radiation Hazards David H. Sliney
`
`15.1
`
`/5.]
`15.1 Glossary /
`15.2.
`Introduction / 15.2
`15.3.
`Injury Mechanisms / 15.2
`15.4 Types of Injury / 15.4
`15.5 Retinal Irradiance Calculations /
`15.6 Examples / 15.8
`15.7. Exposure Limits /
`15.8 Discussion /
`/5./]
`15.9 References /
`/5.15
`
`/5.9
`
`/5.8
`
`Chapter 16. Vision Problems at Computers
`
`James E. Sheedy
`
`16.1
`
`/6./
`Introduction /
`16.1
`/ 16.2
`16.2. Work Environment
`16.3 Vision and Eye Conditions / 16.4
`16.4 References /
`/6.6
`
`0007
`
`0007
`
`

`

`CONTENTS
`
`vii
`
`Chapter 17. Human Vision and Electronic Imaging Bernice E. Rogowitz,
`Thrasyvoulos N. Pappas, and Jan P. Allebach
`
`17.1
`
`17.1
`17.2
`17.3
`17.4
`
`17.5
`17.6
`17.7
`
`Introduction / 17.1
`/7.2
`Early Vision Approaches: The Perception of Imaging Artifacts /
`Higher-Level Approaches: The Analysis of Image Features / 17.3
`Very High-Level Approaches: The Representation of Aesthetic and Emotional
`Characteristics / 17.9
`Conclusions
`/
`/7.J1
`Additional Information on HumanVision and Electronic Imaging / 17.12
`References / 17.12
`
`Chapter 18. Visual Factors Associated with Head-MountedDisplays
`Brian H. Tsou and Martin Shenker
`
`18.1
`
`18.1
`18.2
`18.3
`18.4
`18.5
`18.6
`18.7
`
`[8.1
`Glossary /
`/8J
`Introduction /
`CommonDesign Considerations Among AllHMDs / 18.2
`Characterizing HMD / 18.6
`Summary / 18/0
`Appendix / 18/0
`References / 18.13
`
`Part 3. X-Ray and Neutron Optics
`
`SUBPART 3.1.
`
`INTRODUCTION
`
`Chapter 19. An Introduction to X-Ray Optics and Neutron Optics
`
`Carolyn A. MacDonald and Walter M. Gibson 19.1
`
`19.1
`19.2
`19.3
`19.4
`
`A New Century of X-Ray and Neutron Optics
`X-Ray Interaction with Matter
`/ 19.6
`Optics Choices
`/ 19.7
`References /
`[9.10
`
`/ 19.5
`
`SuBPART 3.2.
`
`REFRACTIVE Optics
`
`8B. Lengeler, C. Schroer, J. Tiimmler,
`Chapter 20. Refractive X-Ray Optics
`B. Benner, A. Snigirev, and |. Snigireva
`
`20.3
`
`20.1
`20.2
`20.3
`20.4
`
`20.5
`20.6
`
`Introduction / 20.3
`Concept and Manufacture of Parabolic X-Ray Lenses / 20.3
`Generation of a Microfocus by Means ofa CRL / 20.5
`Imaging of an Object Illuminated by an X-Ray Source by Means of a CRL: Hard X-Ray
`Microscope / 20.7
`Summary and Outlook / 20.8
`References / 20.9
`
`Suppart 3.3. DIFFRACTIVE AND INTERFERENCE Optics
`
`Chapter 21. Gratings and Monochromatorsin the VUV and Soft X-Ray
`Spectral Region Malcolm R. Howells 21.3
`
`
`21.1
`21.2
`
`Introduction / 21.3
`Diffraction Properties / 21.4
`
`0008
`
`0008
`
`

`

`22.1
`
`23.1
`
`26.3
`
`24.1
`
`25.1
`
`viii
`
`CONTENTS
`
`213
`21.4
`21.5
`21.6
`21.7
`
`Focusing Properties / 21.5
`Dispersion Properties / 21.9
`Resolution Properties / 21.9
`Efficiency / 2/.10
`References / 21.10
`
`Chapter 22. Crystal Monochromators and Bent Crystals Peter Siddons
`
`22.1
`22:2.
`22.3
`
`Crystal Monochromators / 22./
`Bent Crystals / 22.4
`References / 22.6
`
`Chapter 23. Zone and Phase Plates, Bragg-Fresnel Optics Alan Michette
`
`23.1
`23.2
`23.3
`23.4
`23.5
`23.6
`23.7
`
`Introduction / 23.]
`Zone Plate Geometry / 23.2
`Amplitude Zone Plates / 23.4
`Phase Zone Plates / 23.5
`Manufacture of Zone Plates / 23.6
`Bragg-Fresnel Optics / 23.7
`References / 23.8
`
`Chapter 24. Multilayers Eberhard Spiller
`
`24.1
`24.2
`24.3
`24.4
`24.5
`
`Glossary / 24.1
`Introduction / 24.1
`Calculation of Multilayer Properties / 24.3
`Fabrication Methods and Performance / 24.4
`References / 24./]
`
`Chapter 25. Polarizing Crystal Optics Qun Shen
`
`25.1
`25.2
`25.3
`25.4
`25.5
`25.6
`
`Introduction / 25.1
`Linear Polarizers / 25.2
`Linear Polarization Analyzers / 25.4
`Phase Plates for Circular Polarization / 25.5
`Circular Polarization Analyzers / 25.6
`References / 25.8
`
`Suspart 3.4. Total REFLECTION Optics
`
`’ Chapter 26. Mirrors for Synchrotron Beamlines Andreas Freund
`
`26.1
`26.2
`26.3
`26.4
`26.5
`26.6
`
`Specific Requirements for Synchrotron X-Ray Optics / 26.3
`Mirror Substrate Quality / 26.4
`Metrology / 26.5
`The Heat Load System / 26.5
`Focusing with Mirrors / 26.6
`References / 26.6
`
`0009
`
`0009
`
`

`

`27.1
`Chapter 27. The Schwarzschild Objective Franco Cerrina
`
`Introduction / 27.1
`27.1
`27.2 Applications to X-Ray Domain / 27.3
`27.3 References / 27.5
`
`CONTENTS
`
`Ix
`
`Chapter 28. Astronomical X-Ray Optics Marshall K. Joy
`
`28.1
`
`Introduction / 28]
`28.1
`28.2 Wolter X-Ray Optics / 28.]
`28.3 Kirkpatrick-Baez Optics / 28.7
`28.4 High Angular Resolution X-Ray Optics / 28.10
`28.5 References / 28.12
`
`29.1
`Chapter 29. Single Capillaries Donald H. Bilderback and Edward D. Franco
`
`29.1 Background / 29.]
`29.2. Design Parameters / 29.]
`29.3. Fabrication / 29.4
`29.4 Conclusion / 29.6
`29.5 References / 29.6
`
`Chapter 30. Polycapillary and Multichannel Plate X-Ray Optics Carolyn A.
`
`MacDonald and Walter M. Gibson 30.1
`
`Introduction / 30.1
`30.1
`30.2. Multichannel Plate Optics / 30.2
`30.3 Polycapillary Optics / 30.4
`30.4 References / 30.15
`
`Suppart 3.5. X-Ray Optics SELECTION: APPLICATION, SOURCE, AND DETECTOR
`REQUIREMENTS
`
`SECTION 3.5.7. SOURCES
`
`Johannes Ullrich and
`Chapter 31. Electron Impact Sources
`31.5
`Carolyn A. MacDonald
`
`Introduction / 31.5
`31.1
`31.2 Spectra from Electron Beam Impact X-Ray Sources / 31.5
`31.3 Effect of Current on Source Size and Brightness / 31.7
`31.4 Effect of Anode Material
`/ 3/./0
`31.5 Effect of Source Voltage / 31.10
`31.6 General Optimization / 3/.10
`31.7 Effect of Different Optics Types on Brightness / 31.1]
`31.8 Choosing a Source/Optic Combination / 31.1]
`31.9 References / 31.11
`
`0010
`
`0010
`
`

`

`x
`
`CONTENTS
`
`Chapter 32. Synchrotron Radiation Sources 32.1 _S. L. Hulbert and G. P. Williams
`
`32.1
`Introduction / 32.]
`32.2. Theory of Synchrotron Radiation Emission / 32.2
`32.3. Conclusion / 32.19
`32.4 References / 32.20
`
`
`
`Chapter 33. Novel Sources Alan Michette
`
`'
`
`33.1
`
`Introduction / 33.]
`33.1
`33.2. Laser-Generated Plasmas / 33.
`33.3. Pinch Plasmas / 33.3
`33.4 Channeling Radiation / 33.3
`33.5 Transition Radiation / 33.3
`33.6 Parametric Radiation / 33.3
`33.7 X-Ray Lasers / 33.4
`33.8 Free-Electron Lasers / 33.4
`33.9 References / 33.4
`
`SEcTION 3.5.2. DETECTORS
`
`
`
`Chapter 34. X-Ray Detectors Walter M. Gibson 34.3
`
`Introduction / 343
`34.1
`34.2 Detector Type / 34.3
`34.3 Summary / 349
`344 References / 349
`
`SECTION 3.5.3. APPLICATIONS
`
`Chapter 35. Applications Requirements Affecting Optics Selection
`Carolyn A. MacDonald and Walter M. Gibson 35.3
`
`
`Introduction / 35.3
`35.1
`35.2. Coherence and Flux Requirements / 35.3
`35.3. Microscopy / 35.4
`35.4 Proximity Lithography / 35.4
`35.5 Diffraction / 35.6
`35.6 Fluorescence / 35.15
`35.7. Medical Applications / 35.24
`35.8 References / 35.34
`
`SUBPART 3.6. NEUTRON OPTICS
`
`
`
`Chapter 36. Neutron Optics David Mildner 36.3
`
`Introduction / 36.3
`36.1
`Index of Refraction / 36.5
`36.2
`36.3 Refraction and Mirror Reflection / 36.5
`36.4 Prisms and Lenses / 36.6
`36.5 Neutron Polarization / 36.6
`36.6 Neutron Scattering Lengths / 36,7
`36.7 Neutron Attenuation / 36.7
`36.8 Refractive Index Matching / 36.7
`36.9 Neutron Guides / 36.8
`
`0011
`
`
`
`0011
`
`

`

`CONTENTS
`
`xi
`
`36.10 Ultracold Neutrons / 36.9
`36.11 Diffraction / 36.9
`36.12 Interference / 36.10
`36.13 Perfect Crystal Interferometers / 36.J/
`36.14 Interferometric Measurementof Scattering Lengths / 36.12
`36.15 Neutron Sources / 36./2
`36.16 Experimental Techniques / 36.13
`36.17 Neutron Polarization / 36.13
`36.18 Larmor Precession / 36./3
`36.19 Neutron Collimation / 36./3
`36.20 Optical Filter
`/ 36.14
`36.21 Converging Guides / 36./4
`36.22 Polycapillary Optics / 36.15
`36.23 Neutron Detection / 36.15
`36.24 References / 36.16
`
`SUBPART 3.7. SUMMARY AND APPENDIX
`
`Chapter 37. Summary of X-Ray and Neutron Optics Walter M. Gibson
`and Carolyn A. MacDonald
`
`Appendix. X-Ray Properties of Materials
`
`£. M. Gullikson
`
`A.1_ Electron Binding Energies, Principal K- and L-Shell Emission Lines,
`and Auger Electron Energies / A.3
`A.2 References / AY
`
`Cumulative Index, Volumes | through IV, follows Appendix
`
`37.3
`
`Al
`
`0012
`
`0012
`
`

`

`
`
`3.18
`
`CLASSICAL OPTICS
`
`46.
`
`47.
`
`48.
`49,
`50.
`
`1.
`
`52.
`
`55.
`
`56.
`
`37.
`
`58.
`59.
`
`60.
`
`él.
`
`J. Reichman, “Determination of Scattering and Absorption Coefficients for Nonhomo
`Media,” Appl. Opt. 12:1811 (1973).
`
`B. Maheu,J. N. Letoulouzan, and G, Gouesesbet, “Four-Flux Models to Solve the Scattering T,,._
`a
`Equations in Terms of Lorentz-Mie Parameters,” Appl. Opt. 26:3353-3361 (1984).
`
`A. G. Emslie and J. R. Aronson, Appl. Opt. 12:2563 (1973).
`
`S. Datta, Electronic Transport in Mesoscopic Systems, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 1%
`ea?
`K. Kuga and A. Ishimaru, “Retroreflectance from a Dense Distribution of Spherical Partie
`Opt. Soc. Am. A 1:831-835 (1984).
`
`M. P. Albada and A.Lagendijk, “Observation of Weak Localization of Light ina Random Megj,
`Phys. Rev, Lett, 55:2692-2695 (1985).
`"4
`
`P. Wolf and G. Maret, “Weak Localization and Coherent Backscattering of Photons in Diso,
`Media,” Phys. Rev. Lett, 55:2696-2699 (1985).
`
`. M.P. Albada, M.B. van der Mark, and A. Lagendijk, “Experiments on Weak Localization ang 7
`Interpretation,” in Scattering and Localization of Classical Waves in Random Media,P. Sheng (e
`World Scientific, Singapore, 1990.
`
`. Y. Barabenkov, Y. Kravtsov, V. D. Ozrin, and A.I. Saicev, “Enhanced Backscattering in Opt
`Progress in Optics XX1X, E. Wolf (ed.), North-Holland, Amsterdam, 1991.
`
`K, Watson, “Multiple Scattering of Electromagnetic Waves in an Underdense Plasma,” J. Math, pj
`10:688-702 (1969).
`9
`E. Akkermas, P. E. Wolf, R. Maynard, and G. Maret, “Theoretical Study of the Coherent Backer
`tering of Light in Disordered Media,” J. Phys. France 49:77-98 (1988).
`sy
`
`R. Berkovits and S. Feng, “Correlations in Coherent Multiple Scattering,” Phys. Reports 238:135]
`(1994).
`
`I. Freund, “ ‘1001’ Correlations in Random Wave Fields,” Waves Random Media 8:119-158 (1998)
`A. Z. Genack, “Fluctuations, Correlation and Average Transport of Electromagnetic Radiation
`Random Media,”in Scattering and Localization ofClassical Waves in Random Media,P. Sheng(e
`
`World Scientific, Singapore, 1990,
`
`S. Feng and P. A. Lee, “Mesoscopic Conductors and Correlations in Laser Speckle Patterns,” Scie
`251:633-639 (1991).
`5
`M. Rosenbluh, M. Hoshen, I. Freund, and M. Kaveh, “Time Evolution of Universal Optical Fluctt
`tions,” Phys. Rev. Lett. 58:2754-2757 (1987).
`j
`. J.-H. Liand A. Z. Genack, “Correlation in Laser Speckle,” Phys. Rev. E 49:4530-4533 (1994).
`. M. P. van Albada,J. F. de Boer, and A. Lagendijk, “Observation of Long-Range Intensity Corre
`tion in the Transport of Coherent Light Through a Random Medium,” Phys. Rev. Lett. 64:2787-2i
`(1990).
`1
`. 5. Feng, C. Kane, P. A. Lee, and A. D. Stone, “Correlations and Fluctuations of Coherent Wave
`Tra
`mission Through Disordered Media,” Phys. Rev. Lett. 61:834-837 (1988).
`
`
`
`Seng
`
`
`
`0013
`
`0013
`
`

`

` CHAPTER 4
`aSOLID-STATE CAMERAS
`
`
`
`=
`
`Winter Park, Florida
`
`Unit
`Definition
`Quantity
`m?
`Photosensitive area of one detector
`Ap
`3 x 10° m/s
`Speedoflight
`c
`F
`Sense node capacitance
`Cc
`W umm?
`Spectral radiant incidance
`Ecsacepine(A)
`photons s' um"! m®
`Spectral photon incidance
`Egtaceptne(A)
`
`d__Detectorsize mm
`decu
`Detectorpitch
`mm
`D
`Optical diameter
`m
`DRamiy
`Array dynamic range
`numeric
`DResa
`Camera dynamic range
`numeric
`fl
`Optical focal length
`m
`Fs
`f-number
`numeric
`G
`Source follower gain
`numeric
`h
` Planck’s constant
`6.626 x 10 J s7
`M,
`Radiant exitance
`W/m?
`M,(A)
`Spectral photon exitance
`photons s! um! m~
`Moprics
`Optical magnification
`numeric
`M,
`Photometric exitance
`lumen m?
`Neark
`Numberofelectrons created by dark current
`numeric
`Mpe
`Numberofphotoelectrons
`numeric
`Ayett
`Charge well capacity
`numeric
`q
`Electronic charge
`1.6x 10°C
`R..
`Equivalent resolution
`mm
`
`Gerald C. Holst
`JCD Publishing
`
`SSARY
`
`4.1
`
`0014
`
`0014
`
`

`

`
`
`4.2
`
`CLASSICAL OPTICS
`
`
`
`A/W
`Detector responsivity
`RCA)
`V/(J cm)
`Average detector responsivity
`Rave
`
`s
`Integration time
`tint
`numeric
`Nonuniformity
`U
`Vv
`Maximum output voltage
`Vix
`
`Vsagzial Voltage created by photoelectrons Vv
`
`
`<Naoor>
`Noise created by on-chip amplifier
`rms electrons
`
`<Npattern>
`Pattern noise
`rmselectrons
`<Nppnu>
`Photoresponse nonuniformity noise
`rms electrons
`<Mghot>
`Shot noise
`rms electrons
`<Mys>
`Total array noise
`rms electrons
`n
`Image space horizontalspatial frequency
`cycles/mm
`Nc
`Optical cutoff in image space
`cycles/mm
`Tn
`Nyquist frequency in image space
`cycles/mm
`Ns
`Sampling frequency in image space
`cycles/mm
`Na)
`Spectral quantum efficiency
`numeric
`X
`Wavelength
`um
`
`
`
`
`
`
`4.2 INTRODUCTION
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`The heartof the solid-state camerais the solid-state array. It provides the conversionoflish;
`intensity into measurable voltage signals. With appropriate timing signals, the temporalvolt
`age signal represents spatial light intensities. When the array output is amplified and format
`ted into a standard video format, a solid-state camera is created. Because charge-cou
`devices (CCDs) werethefirst solid-state detector arrays, cameras are popularly called C
`cameras even though they may contain charge injection devices (CIDs) or complemen
`metal-oxide semiconductors (CMOS)as detectors.
`Boyle and Smith' and Amelis et al.* invented CCDsin 1970. Since then, considerable i
`erature*'' has been written on CCD physics, fabrication, and operation. Charge-couple
`
`devices refers to a semiconductor architecture in which chargeis transferred throughsto
`
`areas, The CCDarchitecture has three basic functions: (1) charge collection, (2) chargetr.
`
`fer, and (3) the conversion of charge into a measurable voltage. The basic building bloc
`the CCDis the metal-insulator semiconductor (MIS) capacitor. The most important MI
`
`the metal-oxide semiconductor (MOS). Because the oxideofsilicon is an insulator,it is a
`1
`ural choice.
`Chargegenerationis often considered astheinitial function of the CCD.Withsilicon pho
`
`todetectors, each absorbed photoncreatesan electron-hole pair. Either the electronsor hole
`can be stored and transferred. For frame transfer devices, charge generation occurs undera
`MOScapacitor (also called a photogate). For some devices (notably interline transf@
`
`devices), photodiodescreate the charge.
`]
`The CID does not use a CCDfor chargetransfer. Rather, two overlapping silicon MO2
`capacitors share the samerow and columnelectrode. Column capacitorsare typically used
`
`Cll
`integrate charge while the row capacitors sense the charge after integration. With the
`architecture, each pixel is addressable(i.e., it is a matrix-addressable device).
`Active pixel sensors (APSs) are fabricated with CMOStechnology. The advantageis tha
`one or moreactive transistors can be integrated into the pixel. As such, they become
`1%
`addressable (can read selected pixels) and can perform on-chip image processing.
`
`
`
`0015
`
`0015
`
`

`

` GING SYSTEMAPPLICATIONS
`
`SOLID-STATE CAMERAS
`
`4.3
`
`Devices may be described functionally according to their architecture (frame transfer,
`interline transfer, etc.) or by application. To minimize cost, arraycomplexity, and electronic
`rocessing, the architecture is typically designed fora specific application. For example, astro-
`nomical cameras typically use full-frame arrays, whereas video systemsgenerally useinterline
`transfer devices. The separation between general imagery, machine vision, scientific devices,
`and military devices becomesfuzzy as technology advances.
`
`Cameras for the professional broadcast television and consumer camcorder markets are
`designed to operatein real time with an outputthatis consistent with a standard broadcast
`format. The resolution, in terms of array size, is matched to the bandwidth that is recom-
`mendedbythe standard. An array that provides an output of 768 horizontal by 484vertical
`pixels creates a satisfactory image for conventional (U.S.) television. Eight bits (256 gray lev-
`els) provides an acceptable image in the broadcast and camcorderindustry.
`In its simplest version, a machine vision system consistsof a light source, camera, and com-
`puter software that rapidly analyzes digitized images with respect to location,size, flaws, and
`other preprogrammeddata. Unlike other types of image analysis, a machine vision system
`also includes a mechanism that immediately reacts to an image that does not conform to
`parameters stored in the computer. For example, defective parts are taken off a production
`line conveyorbelt.
`Forscientific applications, low noise, high responsivity, large dynamic range, and high res-
`olution are dominantconsiderations. To exploit a large dynamic range, scientific cameras may
`digitize the signal into 12, 14, or 16 bits. Scientific arrays may have 5000 x 5000 detector ele-
`ments.” Theoretically, the array can be any size, but manufacturing considerations mayulti-
`mately limit the arraysize.
`Although low-light-level cameras have many applications, they tend to be used forscien-
`tific applications. There is no industrywide definition of a low-light-level imaging system. To
`some,it is simply a solid-state camera that can provide a usable image whenthelighting con-
`ditions are less than 1 lux (Ix). To others, it refers to an intensified camera and is sometimes
`called a low-light-level television (LLLTV) system. An imageintensifier amplifies a low-light-
`level image that can be sensed by a solid-state camera. The image intensifier/CCD camera
`combinationis called an intensified CCD (ICCD). The image intensifier provides tremen-
`dous light amplification but also introduces additional noise. The spectral response of the
`ICCDis governed bythe imageintensifier.
`The military is interested in detecting, recognizing, and identifying targets at long dis-
`tances. This requires high-resolution, low-noise sensors. Target detection is a perceptibleact.
`A humandeterminesif the target is present. The military uses the minimum resolvable con-
`trast (MRC)as a figure of merit.’
`
`RGE-COUPLED DEVICE ARRAY ARCHITECTURE
`
`Arrayarchitectureis driven by the application. Full-frame and frametransfer devices tend to be
`used forscientific applications. Interline transfer devices are used in consumer camcorders and
`professionaltelevision systems. Linear arrays, progressive scan, and time delay and integration
`(TDI)are usedfor industrial applications. Despite an ever-increasing demand for color cam-
`eras, black-and-white cameras are widely used for manyscientific and industrial applications.
`The basic operation oflinear, full-frame, frame transfer, and interline transfer devicesis
`described in Chap. 22, “Visible Array Detectors,” Handbook of Optics, Vol. I. This section
`describes some additionalfeatures.
`
`0016
`
`0016
`
`

`

`
`
`CLASSICAL OPTICS
`
`Full-Frame Arrays
`
`In full-frame arrays, the numberof pixels is often based upon powersof2 (e.g., 512 x
`1024 x 1024) to simplify memory mapping. Scientific arrays have square pixels and this
`plifies image-processing algorithms.
`Dataratesare limited by the amplifier bandwidth and,if present, the conversion cg
`ity of the analog-to-digital converter. To increase the effective readoutrate, the array
`divided into subarraysthat are read out simultaneously. In Fig.1, the arrayis dividedintg
`subarrays. Because they are all read out simultaneously, the effective clock rate increa,
`a factor of 4. Software then reconstructs the original image. This is donein a video prog
`that is external to the CCD device wheretheserial data are decoded and reformatteq,
`
`
`
`Interline Transfer
`
`The interline transfer array consists of photodiodes separated by vertical transfer regi
`that are covered by an opaque metalshield (Fig. 2). Although photogates could be used,
`todiodes offer higher quantum efficiency. After integration, the charge that is generat
`the photodiodesis transferred to the vertical CCD registers in about 1 microsecond(us)
`main advantageofinterline transfer is that the transfer from the active sensorsto the shiel
`storage is quick. There is no need to shutter the incominglight. The shieldsactlike a venegj
`blind that obscures half the information that is available in the scene. Theareafill facto:
`be as low as 20 percent. Because the detector areais only 20 percentofthe pixelarea, th
`put voltage is only 20 percent of a detector that would completely fill
`the pixel area)
`microlens can optically increase thefill factor.
`q
`Becauseinterline devices are most often found in general imagery products, most tra
`register designs are based upon standard video timing. Figure 3 illustrates a four-phase
`fer register that stores charge under two gates. With 2:1 interlace, both fields are collecte
`
`
`
`and
`and
`Amplifier
`Amplifier
`FIGURE 1Alarge array divided into four subarrays. Each subarray is
`read out simultaneously to increase the effective data rate. Very large
`arrays may have up to 32 parallel outputs.
`
`.
`
`
`
`0017
`
`0017
`
`

`

`SOLID-STATE CAMERAS=4.5
`
`aeea
`Serial Readout
`
`
`
`
`
`and Amplifier
`
`FIGURE2 Interline transfer architecture. The chargeis rapidly transferred
`to transfer registers via the transfer gate. Interline transfer devices can also
`have a split architecture similar to that shown in Fig.1.
`
`simultaneously but are read out alternately. This is called frame integration. With EIA 170
`(formerly called RS 170), each field is read every 1/60 s. Because thefields alternate, the max-
`imum integration timeis 1/30 s for eachfield.
`Pseudointerlacing (sometimescalled field integration) is shown in Fig. 4. Changing the
`gate voltage shifts the image centroid by one-half pixel in the vertical direction. This creates
`50 percent overlap between the twofields. The pixels have twice the vertical extent of stan-
`dardinterline transfer devices and therefore have twice the sensitivity. An array that appears
`to have 240 elements in the vertical direction is clocked so that it creates 480 lines. However,
`
`
`
`(a)
`
`(b)
`
`FIGURE3 Detailed layout of the 2:1 interlaced array. (a) The odd
`field is clocked into the vertical transfer register, and (b) the even
`field is transferred. The vertical transfer register has four gates and
`chargeis stored under two wells. The pixel is defined by the detector
`center-to-center spacing, andit includes the shielded vertical register
`area. Thetransfergate is not shown.
`
`0018
`
`0018
`
`

`

`dointerlace device can also operate in a standard interlace mode.
`
`4.6
`
`CLASSICAL OPTICS
`
`
`
`FIGURE 4 Pseudointerlace. By collecting charge from alternating
`active detector sites, the pixel centroid is shifted by one-half pixel.
`(a) Odd field and (5) even field.
`
`this reduces the vertical modulation transfer function (MTF). With some devices,the pseu.
`
`i"
`
`4.5 CHARGE INJECTION DEVICE
`
`i
`|
`i
`
`ql
`il
`
`A CID consists of two overlapping MOScapacitors sharing the same row and columnele¢
`trode. Figure 5 illustrates the pixel architecture. The nearly contiguous pixel layout provide
`a fill factor of 80 percent or greater. Charge injection device readoutis accomplished by
`th
`ferring the integrated charge from the column capacitors to the row capacitors. After
`nondestructive signal readout, the charge moves back to the columns for more integrationo
`is injected (discarded) back into the silicon substrate.
`Although the capacitors are physically orthogonal,it is easier to understand their opert
`tion by placing them side by side. Figure 6 illustrates a functional diagram of an array,
`a
`at
`Fig. 7 illustrates the pixel operation. In Fig. 7a, a large voltage is applied to the columns,
`photogenerated carriers (usually holes) are stored under the columngate. If the columnvoll
`
`i
`
`Column Select
`
`FIGURE 5
`
`CID pixelarchitecture.
`
`0019
`
`
`
`0019
`
`

`

`
`
`SOLID-STATE CAMERAS
`
`4.7
`
`
`
`FIGURE 6 Functional layout of a 3 x 3 CID array. The row andcol-
`umnselect registers are also called decoders. The select registers and
`readout electronics can be fabricated with CMOStechnology.
`
`age is broughtto zero, the charge transfers to the row gate (Fig. 7b). The change in charge
`causes a changein the row gate potential that is then amplified and outputted. If V, is reap-
`plied to the columns, the charge transfers back to the column gate. This is nondestructive
`readout and no chargeis lost.