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`
`BY
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`a
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`[i
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`2)
`
`£
`
`& MOE R
`
`| Gow
`
`HANDBOOK OF
`eg!
`COMMISTECHNIQUES, apee
`anEcon EDITION «
`:
`Oe
`
`0001
`
`MICHAEL BASS, EDITOR IN CHIEF
`ERIC W. VAN STRYLAND © DAVID R. WILLIAMS © WILLIAM L. WOLFE, ASSOCIATE EDITORS
`
`VWGoOA EX1046
`USS. Patent No. 9,955,551
`
`0001
`
`VWGoA EX1046
`U.S. Patent No. 9,955,551
`
`

`

`
`
`HANDBOOK OF
`OPTICS
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`0002
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`0002
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`

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`HANDBOOK OF
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`
`Volume |
`Fundamentals, Techniques,
`and Design
`
`
`Second Edition
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`Sponsored by the
`OPTICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA
`
`Michael Bass Editorin chiet
`The Center for Research and
`Education in Optics and Lasers (CREOL)
`University of Central Florida
`Orlando, Florida
`
`Eric W. Van Stryland Associate Editor
`The Center for Research and Education
`in Optics and Lasers (CREOL)
`University of Central Florida
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`ee
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`Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
`
`Handbookof optics / sponsored by the Optical Society of America ;
`Michael Bass, editor in chief. — 2nd ed.
`p.
`cm.
`Includes bibliographical references and index.
`Contents:
`1, Fundamentals, techniques, and design — 2. Devices,
`measurement, and properties.
`ISBN 0-07-047740-X
`2. Optical instruments—
`1. Optics—Handbooks, manuals, etc.
`Handbooks, manuals, etc.
`I. Bass, Michael.
`II. Optical Society
`of America.
`QC369.H35
`535—dc20
`
`1995
`
`94-19339
`CIP
`
`Copyright © 1995 by McGraw-Hill, Inc. All rights reserved. Printed in the
`United States of America. Except as permitted under the United States
`Copyright Act of 1976, no part of this publication may be reproduced or
`distributed in any form or by any means,or stored in a data base or
`retrieval system, without the prior written permission of the publisher.
`
`6789 DOC/DOC 0987654321
`
`ISBN 0-07-047740-X
`
`The sponsoring editor for this book was Stephen S$, Chapman, the editing
`supervisor was Peggy Lamb, and the production supervisor was Pamela A.
`Pelton. It was set in Times Roman by The Universities Press (Belfast) Ltd.
`
`Printed and bound by R.R. Donnelly & Sons Company.
`
`This book was printed on acid-free paper.
`
`appropriate professional should be sought.
`
`Information contained in this work has been obtained by
`McGraw-Hill,
`Inc. from sources believed to be reliable. How-
`ever, neither McGraw-Hill nor
`its authors guarantees the
`accuracy or completeness of any information published herein
`and neither McGraw-Hill norits authors shall be responsible for
`any errors, omissions, or damages arising out of use of this
`information. This work is published with the understanding that
`McGraw-Hill and its authors are supplying information but are
`not attempting to render engineering or other professional
`services.
`If such services are required,
`the assistance of an
`
`0005
`
`0005
`
`

`

`
`
`CONTENTS
`
`Contributors—xvii
`Preface
`xix
`
`Glossary and Fundamental Constants
`
`xxi
`
`Part 1. Geometric Optics
`
`1.1
`
`
`Chapter 1. General Principles of Geometric Optics Douglas S. Goodman
`1.3
`
`1.1. Glossary / 1.3
`1.2.
`Introduction / 1.7
`1.3.
`Fundamentals
`/
`[.9
`1.15
`/
`1.4. Characteristic Functions
`1.5.
`Rays in Heterogeneous Media / 1.20
`1.6. Conservation of Etendue / 1.24
`1.7.
`SkewInvariant
`/
`1,25
`1.8. Refraction and Reflection at Interfaces Between Homogeneous Media / 1.26
`1.9.
`Imaging /
`1.29
`1.35
`1.10. Description of Systems of Revolution /
`1.11. Tracing Rays in Centered Systems of Spherical Surfaces
`1.12. Paraxial Optics of Systems of Revolution / 1.4]
`1.13.
`Images About Known Rays
`/ 1.46
`1.14. Gaussian Lens Properties
`/ 1.48
`1.15. Collineation / 1.60
`1.16. System Combination—Gaussian Properties
`1.17. Paraxial Matrix Methods
`/
`J.70
`1.18. Apertures, Pupils, Stops, Fields, and Related Matters /
`1.18. Geometric Aberrations of Point Images-ss-Description /
`1.20. References
`/
`J,J00
`
`/
`
`1.68
`
`1.80
`1.82
`
`/
`
`1.39
`
`Part 2. Physical Optics
`
`2.1
`
`
`
`/ 2.3
`
`Chapter 2. Interference John E. Greivenkamp,Jr. 2.3
`2.1,
`Glossary / 2.3
`Zid.
`Introduction / 2.3
`oud
`Waves and Wavefronts
`2.4.
`Interference / 2.5
`2.5.
`Interference by Wavefront Division / 2./4
`2.6,
`Interference by Amplitude Division / 2.19
`2.7,
`Multiple Beam Interference / 2.29
`2.8.
`Coherence and Interference / 2.36
`2.9,
`References
`
`/ 2.43
`
`0006
`
`

`

`vi
`
`CONTENTS
`
`Chapter3. Diffraction A. S. Marathay
`
`3.1. Glossary / 3.1
`3.2.
`Introduction / 3.]
`3.3.
`Light Waves
`/ 3.2
`3.4.
`Huygens-Fresnel Construction / 3.4
`3.5. Cylindrical Wavefront
`/ 3.13
`3.6. Mathematical Theory of Diffraction / 3.19
`3.7. Vector Diffraction / 3.27
`3.8. References / 3.30
`
`Chapter 4. Coherence Theory William H. Carter
`
`4.1. Glossary / 4]
`4.2.
`Introduction / 4]
`4.3.
`Some Elementary Classical Concepts
`4.4, Definitions of Coherence Functions
`4.5.
`Model Sources
`/ 4.9
`4.6.
`Propagation / 4.13
`4.7.
`Spectrum of Light
`/ 4.20
`4.8.
`Polarization Effect
`/ 4.23
`4.9. Applications / 4.23
`4.10. References / 4.25
`
`/ 4.2
`/ 44
`
`Chapter 5. Polarization Jean M. Bennett
`
`/ 5.2
`
`5.1. Glossary / 5.]
`5.1. Basic Concepts and Conventions
`5.2.
`Fresnel Equations / 5.4
`/ 5.12
`5.3. Basic Relations for Polarizers
`5.4.
`/ 5.13
`Polarization by Nonnormal-Incidence Reflection (Pile of Plates)
`3s
`Polarization by Nonnormal-Incidence Transmission (Pile of Plates)
`/ 5.16
`5.6. Quarter-Wave Plates and Other Phase Retardation Plates
`/ 5,22
`5.7, Matrix Methods for Computing Polarization / 5.25
`5.8. References / 5.28
`
`
`Chapter 6. Scattering by Particles Craig F. Bohren
`
`6.1. Glossary / 6.1
`6.2.
`Introduction / 6.2
`6.3.
`Scattering: An Overview / 6.3
`6.4.
`Scattering by Particles: Basic Concepts and Terminology / 6.5
`6.5.
`Scattering by an Isotropic, Homogeneous Sphere: the Archetype / 6./2
`6.6.
`Scattering by Regular Particles
`/ 6.15
`6.7. Computational Methods for Nonspherical Particles
`6.8. References / 6.18
`
`/ 6.17
`
`3.1
`
`4.1
`
`5.1
`
`6.1
`
`
`Chapter 7. Surface Scattering E. L. Church andP. Z. Takacs
`
`7
`
`7.1
`7.1. Glossary /
`7.2.
`Introduction / 7.]
`7.3. Notation / 7.2
`7.4.
`Scattering Theory / 7.3
`7.5.
`Surface Models
`/
`7.5
`
`0007
`
`0007
`
`

`

`7.6. Wavelength Scaling / 7.7
`7.7.
`Profile Measurements /
`7.8
`7.8.
`Finish Specification / 7.//
`7.9. References
`/
`7.12
`
`CONTENTS
`
`vii
`
`Part 3. Quantum Optics
`
`8.1
`
`Chapter 8. Optical Spectroscopy and Spectroscopic Lineshapes
`
`Brian Henderson 8.3
`
`/
`
`8&3
`8.1. Glossary /
`8&4
`8.2.
`Introductory Comments
`/ 85
`8.3. Theoretical Preliminaries
`8.4. Rates of Spectroscopic Transitions
`8.5.
`Lineshapes of Spectral Transitions
`8.6.
`Spectroscopy of 1-Electron Atoms
`8.7. Multielectron Atoms
`/ &/2
`8.8. Optical Spectra and the Outer Electronic Structure / 8/4
`8.9.
`Spectra of Tri-Positive Rare Earth Atoms
`/ 8/5
`8.10. Vibrational and Rotational Effects of Molecules
`/ 8.2/
`8.11. Lineshapes in Solid State Spectroscopy / 825
`8.12. References
`/ 8.30
`
`8&6
`/
`8&8
`/
`/ 810
`
`
`
`Chapter 9. FundamentalOptical Properties of Solids Alan Miller 9.1
`
`91. Glossary / 9]
`9.2.
`Introduction / 94
`9.3.
`Propagation of Lignt in Solids
`9.4. Dispersion Relations
`/ 9/3
`9.5.
`Lattice Interactions / 9/6
`9.6.
`Free Electron Properties / 9.19
`9.7.
`Band Structures and Interband Transitions
`9.8. References / 9.33
`
`/ 9.4
`
`/ 924
`
`Part 4. Optical Sources
`
`10.1
`
`
`
`Chapter 10. Artificial Sources Anthony LaRocca 10.3
`
`10.3
`10.1. Glossary /
`J0.3
`10.2.
`Introduction /
`10.3. Laboratory Sources
`10.4. Commercial Sources
`10.5. References
`/
`/0.49
`
`/ 10.4
`/
`J0.1/
`
`Chapter 11. Lasers William T. Silfvast
`
`11.1
`
`J/.1
`11.1. Glossary /
`11.2.
`Introduction / 1.2
`11.3.
`Laser Properties Associated with the Laser Gain Medium / 11,4
`
`
`
`0008
`
`0008
`
`

`

`viii
`
`CONTENTS
`
`11.4.
`11.5.
`11.6.
`11.7.
`
`Laser Properties Associated with Optical Cavities or Resonators / 11.20
`Special Laser Cavities
`/ 11.27
`Specific Types of Lasers
`/ 11.32
`References / 11.39
`
`Chapter 12. Light-Emitting Diodes Roland H. Haitz, M. George Craford, and
`Robert H. Weissman
`
`12.1
`
`/ 12.2
`
`12.1. Glossary / 12.1
`12.2.
`Introduction / 12.2
`12.3.
`Light-Generation Processes
`12.4.
`Light Extraction / 12.7
`12.5. Device Structures / 12.8
`12.6. Materials Systems
`/ 12.15
`12.7.
`Substrate Technology / 12.2]
`12.8.
`Epitaxial Technology / 12.23
`12.9. Wafer Processing / 12.24
`12.10. LED Quality and Reliability / 12.27
`12.11. LED Based Products / 12.3]
`12.12. References / 12.38
`
`Chapter 13. Semiconductor Lasers Pamela L. Derry, Luis Figueroa, and
`
`Chi-Shain Hong
`13.1
`
`/ 13.3
`
`ee
`
`13.1
`13.1. Glossary /
`13.2.
`Introduction / 13.3
`13.3. Applications for Semiconductor Lasers
`13.4. Basic Operation / 13.4
`13.5.
`Fabrication and Configurations
`13.6. Quantum Well Lasers
`/ 13.10
`13.7. High-Power Semiconductor Lasers
`13.8. High-Speed Modulation / 13.32
`13.9.
`Spectral Properties / 13.39
`13.10. Surface-Emitting Lasers / 13.42
`13.11. Conclusion / 13.46
`13.12. References / 13.47
`
`/ 13.7
`
`/ 13.19
`
`Chapter 14. Ultrashort Laser Sources Xin Miao Zhao and Jean-ClaudeDiels
`
`14.1
`
`14.1.
`14.2.
`14.3.
`14.4.
`14.5.
`14.6.
`14.7,
`14.8.
`14.9,
`14.10.
`14.11.
`
`14.1]
`Glossary /
`Introduction / 14.2
`/ 14.2
`Passively Mode-Locked Lasers
`Synchronous, Hybrid, and Double Mode Locking / 14.7
`Active and Passive Negative Feedback / 14.1]
`Nonlinear Optical Sources
`/ 14.12
`Additive and Self-Mode-Locking / 14.14
`Other Ultrashort Pulse Sources
`/ 14.18
`Amplification / 14.2]
`Diagnostic Techniques / 14.22
`References
`/ 14,25
`
`‘
`
`0009
`
`0009
`
`

`

`
`
`CONTENTS
`
`ix
`
`Part 5. Optical Detectors
`
`15.1
`
`
`Chapter 15. Photodetectors Paul R. Norton
`15.3
`
`15.4
`J/5.5
`
`15.3
`Scope /
`15.1.
`Thermal Detectors /
`15.2.
`15.3. Quantum Detectors /
`15.4. Definitions
`/ 5.8
`15.5. Detector Performance and Sensitivity / 15.11
`15.6. Other Performance Parameters / 15.15
`15.7. Detector Performance / 15.19
`15.8. References
`/ 15.100
`
`Chapter 16. Photodetection Abhay M. Joshi and Gregory H. Olsen
`
`16.1
`
`16.1. Glossary / 16.
`16.2.
`Introduction / 16.2
`16.3.
`Principles of Operation / 16.3
`16.4. Applications /
`/6./2
`16.5. Reliability / 16.13
`/
`16.6.
`Future Photodetectors
`16.7. Acknowledgment
`/
`16.19
`16.8. References
`/ 16.19
`
`16.16
`
`
`Chapter 17. High-Speed Photodetectors
`J. £. Bowers and Y. G. Wey
`
`17.1
`
`17.1
`17.1. Glossary /
`17.3
`17.2.
`Introduction /
`17.3.
`Photodetector Structures /
`17.4.
`Speed Limitations
`/ 17.6
`17.5,
`PIN Photodetectors / 17.1]
`17.6.
`Schottky Photodiode / 17.17
`17.7. Avalanche Photodetectors
`/
`17.8.
`Photoconductors / 17.22
`17.9.
`Summary /
`17.25
`17.10. References
`/ 17.26
`
`J7.3
`
`/7.19
`
`Chapter 18. Signal Detection and Analysis
`
`John R. Willison
`
`18.1
`
`18.1. Glossary / 18]
`/8.]
`18.2.
`Introduction /
`18.3.
`Prototype Experiment
`18.4. Noise Sources
`/ 183
`18.5. Applications Using Photomultipliers /
`18.6. Amplifiers
`/ J8//
`[8.13
`18.7.
`Signal Analysis
`/
`18.8. References /
`18.16
`
`/ 18.2
`
`18.7
`
`
`
`Chapter 19. Thermal Detectors William L. Wolfe and Paul W. Kruse 19.1
`
`19.1.
`19.2.
`19.3,
`19.4.
`
`Glossary / 19.]
`Thermal Detector Elements
`Arrays / 19.8
`References
`/ 19.13
`
`
`
`/ 19.]
`
`0010
`
`0010
`
`

`

`x
`
`CONTENTS
`
`Part 6.
`
`Imaging Detectors
`
`Chapter 20. Photographic Films
`
`Joseph H. Altman
`
`20.1
`
`20.3
`
`20.1.
`20.2.
`20.3.
`20.4.
`20.5.
`20.6.
`20.7.
`20.8.
`20.9.
`20.10.
`20.11.
`20.12.
`20.13.
`20.14.
`20.15.
`20.16.
`20.17.
`20.18.
`20.19.
`20.20.
`20.21.
`20.22.
`
`/ 20.4
`
`Glossary / 20.3
`Structure of Silver Halide Photographic Layers
`Grains
`/ 20.5
`Processing / 20.5
`Exposure / 20.6
`Optical Density / 20.6
`D-Log H Curve / 20.9
`Spectral Sensitivity /
`20.11]
`Reciprocity Failure / 20.12
`Development Effects
`/ 20.13
`Color Photography / 20.14
`Microdensitometers
`/ 20.16
`Performance of Photographic Systems
`Image Structure / 20.18
`Acutance / 20.19
`Graininess
`/ 20,21
`/ 20.24
`Sharpness and Graininess Considered Together
`Signal to Noise Ratio and Detective Quantum Efficiency / 20.24
`Resolving Power
`/ 20.26
`Information Capacity / 20.26
`List of Photographic Manufacturers / 20.27
`References
`/ 20.27
`
`/ 20.17
`
`Chapter 21. Image Tube Intensified Electronic Imaging C. B. Johnson
`and L. D. Owen
`
`21.1
`
`21.1. Glossary / 2J.]
`21.2.
`Introduction / 21.2
`21.3. Optical Interface / 21.3
`21.4,
`Image Intensifiers
`/ 21.7
`21.5.
`Image Intensified Self-Scanned Arrays / 21.20
`21.6. Applications
`/ 2/.29
`21.7. References
`/ 21.31
`
`Chapter 22. Visible Array Detectors Timothy J. Tredwell
`
`22.1
`
`22.1.
`22.2.
`22.3.
`22.4,
`225.
`22.6.
`
`Glossary / 22.1]
`Introduction / 22.2
`Image Sensing Elements / 22.2
`Readout Elements / 22.13
`Sensor Architectures
`/ 22.22
`References
`/ 22.37
`
`Chapter 23. Infrared Detector Arrays Lester J. Kozlowski and
`Walter F. Kosonocky
`.
`
`23.1,
`23.2.
`23.3.
`23.4.
`
`Glossary / 23.]
`Introduction / 23.4
`Monolithic FPAs / 23.10
`Hybrid FPAs
`/ 23.15
`
`0011
`
`0011
`
`

`

`23.5.
`23.6.
`25s
`
`/ 23.25
`Performance: Figures of Merit
`Current Status and Future Trends / 23.30
`References / 23.25
`
`CONTENTS
`
`xi
`
`Part 7. Vision
`
`24.1
`
`
`Chapter 24. Optics of the Eye W. N. Charman
`24.3
`
`24.1. Glossary / 24.3
`24.2,
`Introduction / 24.5
`24.3.
`Eye Models
`/ 24.7
`24.4. Ocular Transmittance and Retinal Illuminance / 24.9
`24.5.
`Factors Affecting Retinal Image Quality / 2413
`24.6.
`Final Retinal Image Quality / 24.19
`24.7. Depth-of-Focus and Accommodation / 24.26
`24.8. Movements of the Eyes
`/ 2434
`24.9. Two Eyes and Steropsis
`/ 24.37
`24.10. Conclusion / 24.40
`24.11. References
`/ 24.40
`
`
`Chapter 25. Visual Performance Wilson S. Geisler and Martin S. Banks
`
`25.1
`
`25.1. Glossary / 25.1
`25.2.
`Introduction / 25.2
`25.3. Optics, Anatomy, Physiology of the Visual System / 25.3
`25.4. Visual Performance / 25.15
`25.5. References / 25.44
`
`Chapter 26 Colorimetry David H. Brainard
`
`
`
`26.1
`
`26.1. Glossary / 26.1
`26.2.
`Introduction / 26.]
`26.3.
`Fundamentals / 26.3
`26.4.
`Topics
`/ 26.25
`26.5. Appendix A. Matrix Algebra / 26.44
`26.6. Acknowledgments
`/ 26.48
`26.7. References / 26.48
`
`
`Chapter 27. Displays for Vision Research William Cowan
`27.1
`
`27.1. Glossary / 27]
`27.2.
`Introduction / 27.3
`27.3. Operational Characteristics of Color Monitors / 27.3
`27.4. Colorimetric Calibration of Video Monitors
`/ 27.2]
`27.5. An Introduction to Liquid Crystal Displays
`/ 27.36
`27.6. Acknowledgments
`/ 27.43
`27.7. References
`/ 27.43
`
`Chapter 28. Optical Generation of the Visual Stimulus Stephen A. Burns
`and Robert H. Webb
`
`28.1
`
`28.1.
`28.2.
`
`Glossary / 28]
`Introduction / 28.1
`
`
`
`0012
`
`0012
`
`

`

`CONTENTS
`
`28.3.
`28.4.
`28.5.
`28.6.
`28.7.
`28.8.
`28.9.
`28.10.
`28.11.
`28.12.
`28.13.
`28.14.
`28.15.
`
`/ 28]
`The Size of the Visual Stimulus
`Free or Newtonian Viewing / 28.2
`Maxwellian Viewing / 28.4
`Building an Optical System / 288
`Light Exposure and Ocular Safety / 28.19
`Light Sources
`/ 28.20
`Coherent Radiation / 28.20
`Detectors / 28.22
`/ 28.23
`Putting It Together
`Conclusions
`/ 28.27
`Acknowledgments
`/ 28.27
`General References / 28.27
`References
`/ 28.27
`
`
`Chapter 29. Psychophysical Methods Denis G.Pelli and Bart Farell
`
`29.1
`
`29.1,
`29.2.
`29.3.
`29.4,
`29.5.
`29.6.
`20.7.
`29.8.
`29.9.
`29.10.
`
`Introduction / 29.]
`Definitions
`/ 29.2
`Visual Stimuli
`/ 29.4
`Adjustments
`/ 29.4
`Judgments
`/ 29.6
`Stimulus Sequencing / 29.10
`Conclusion / 29.10
`/ 29./]
`Tips from the Pros
`/ 29./1
`Acknowledgments
`References
`/ 29,12
`
`Part 8. Optical Information and Image Processing
`
`Chapter 30. Analog Optical Signal and Image Processing
`Joseph W. Goodman
`
`30.1.
`30.2.
`30.3.
`30.4.
`30.5.
`30.6.
`30.7.
`30.8.
`30.9.
`30.10.
`30.11.
`
`Glossary / 30.3
`Introduction / 30.3
`/ 30.4
`Fundamental Analog Operations
`Analog Optical Fourier Transforms / 30.5
`Spatial Filtering / 30.8
`Coherent Optical Processing of Synthetic Aperture Radar Data / 30.8
`Coherent Optical Processing of Temporal Signals
`/ 30.10
`Optical Processing of Two-Dimensional Images
`/ 30.14
`Incoherent Processing of Discrete Signals
`/ 30.19
`Concluding Remarks
`/ 30.22
`References
`/ 30.23
`
`30.1
`
`30.3
`
`Chapter 31. Principles of Optical Disk Data Storage Masud Mansuripur
`
`31.1
`
`Sd
`a1.2.
`313.
`31.4.
`31.5.
`31.6.
`ah
`31.8.
`
`/ 3/.2
`
`Introduction / 3/./
`Preliminaries and Basic Definitions
`The Optical Path / 31.7
`Automatic Focusing / 3/./3
`Automatic Tracking / 31.15
`Thermomagnetic Recording Processes / 3/./8
`Magneto-Optical Readout
`/ 31.22
`Materials of Magneto-Optical Recording / 31.26
`
`0013
`
`0013
`
`

`

`31.9. Concluding Remarks / 31.29
`31.10. Further Information / 31.32
`31.11. References / 3/.32
`
`CONTENTS
`
`xiii
`
`Part 9. Optical Design Techniques
`
`32.1
`
`
`
`Chapter 32. Techniques of First-Order Layout Warren J. Smith 32.3
`
`/ 32.4
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`35.1. Glossary / 35.]
`35.2.
`Introduction /
`35.1]
`35.3.
`Preparation of Optical Specifications
`
`/ 35.4
`
`0014
`
`32.1. Glossary / 32.3
`32.2.
`First-Order Layout
`32.3. Ray-Tracing / 32.4
`32.4.
`Two-Component Systems
`32.5. Afrocal Systems
`/ 32.7
`32.6. Magnifiers and Microscopes
`32.7. Afocal Attachments
`/ 32.8
`32.8.
`Field Lenses
`/ 32.8
`32.9. Condensers
`/ 32.10
`32.10. Zoom or Varifocal Systems
`32.11. Additional Rays
`/ 32.]2
`/ 32.12
`32.12. Minimizing Component Power
`32.13.
`Is Ita Reasonable Layout? / 32.13
`32.14. Achromatism / 32.]4
`32.15. Athermalization / 32.15
`
`/ 32.5
`
`/ 32.8
`
`/ 32.//
`
`Chapter 33. Aberration Curves in Lens Design Donald C. O'Shea and
`
`Michael E. Harrigan 33.1
`
`tdtdtoiGotytoGeGeGeGoGeGoGoIOUneWb
`
`Glossary / 33.]
`Introduction / 33.1
`Transverse Ray Plots
`Field Plots
`/ 33.4
`Additional Considerations
`Summary / 33.6
`References
`/ 33.6
`
`/ 33.2
`
`/ 33.5
`
`
`
`Chapter 34. Optical Design Software Douglas C. Sinclair 34.1
`
`34.1. Glossary / 34.1
`34.2.
`Introduction / 34.2
`34.3.
`Lens Entry / 34.3
`34.4.
`Evaluation / 34.9
`34.5. Optimization / 34/8
`34.6. Other Topics
`/ 34.22
`34.7,
`Buying Optical Design Software / 34.23
`34.8.
`Summary / 34.26
`34.9. References
`/ 34.26
`
`Chapter 35. Optical Specifications Robert R. Shannon
`
`35.1
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`0014
`
`

`

`xiv
`
`CONTENTS
`
`35.4.
`35.5.
`35.6.
`S5ih;
`35.8.
`
`/ 35.5
`Image Specifications
`Element Description / 35.8
`Environmental Specifications / 35.10
`Presentation of Specifications
`/ 35.10
`Problems with Specification Writing / 35.12
`
`
`
` Chapter 36. Tolerancing Techniques Robert R. Shannon 36.1
`
`36.1. Glossary / 36]
`36.2.
`Introduction / 36.]
`36.3. Wavefront Tolerances / 36.3
`36.4. Other Tolerances / 36.8
`36.5.
`Starting Points
`/ 36.8
`36.6. Material Properties / 36.9
`36.7. Tolerancing Procedures / 36.9
`36.8.
`Problems in Tolerancing / 36/1
`
`Chapter 37. Mounting Optical Components Paul R. Yoder, Jr.
`
`37.1
`
`37.1. Glossary / 37.1
`37.2.
`Introduction and Summary / 37.2
`37.3. Mounting Individual Lenses / 37.2
`37.4. Multicomponent Lens Assemblies
`/ 37.14
`37.5. Mounting Small Mirrors and Prisms
`/ 37.20
`37.6. References
`/ 37.26
`
`Chapter 38. Control of Stray Light Robert P. Breault
`
`38.1
`
`38.1. Glossary / 381
`38.2.
`Introduction / 38.1
`38.3. Concepts
`/ 38.2
`38.4.
`Stray Light Software / 38.25
`38.5. Methods
`/ 38.28
`38.6. Conclusion / 38.3]
`38.7.
`Sources of Information on Stray Light and Scattered Light
`38.8. References / 38.34
`
`/ 38.32
`
`Chapter 39. Thermal Compensation Techniques
`M. Roberts
`
`P. J. Rogers and
`
`39.1
`
`39.1. Glossary / 39.]
`39.2.
`Introduction / 39.2
`/ 39.2
`39.3. Homogeneous Thermal Effects
`39.4. Tolerable Homogeneous Temperature Change (No Compensation)
`39.5.
`Effect of Thermal Gradients / 39.6
`39.6.
`Intrinsic Athermalization / 39.7
`39.7. Mechanical Thermalization / 39.7
`39.8. Optical Athermalization / 39.13
`39.9, References
`/ 39.16
`
`/ 39.5
`
`0015
`
`0015
`
`

`

`——
`
`CONTENTS
`
`xv
`
`40.1
`
`40.3
`
`Part 10. Optical Fabrication
`
`Chapter 40. Optical Fabrication Robert E. Parks
`
`Introduction / 40.3
`40.1.
`40.2. Basic Steps in Optical Fabrication / 40.3
`40.3.
`Plano Optical Surfaces
`/ 40.6
`40.4. Crystalline Optics
`/ 40.6
`40.5. Aspherics / 40.6
`40.6. Diamond Turning / 40.7
`40.7.
`Purchasing Optics
`/ 40.7
`40.8. Conclusions
`/ 40.8
`40.9. References / 40.8
`
`Chapter 41. Fabrication of Optics by Diamond Turning Richard L. Rhorer
`
`and Chris J. Evans 41.1
`
`41.1. Glossary / 4/.]
`41.2,
`Introduction / 41.]
`/ 41.2
`41.3. The Diamond-Turning Process
`41.4. The Advantages of Diamond Turning / 41.2
`41.5. Diamond-Turnable Materials
`/ 41.3
`41.6. Comparison of Diamond Turning and Traditional Optical Fabrication / 41.5
`41.7. Machine Tools for Diamond Turning / 4/.5
`41.8.
`Basic Steps in Diamond Turning / 41.7
`/ 41.8
`41.9.
`Surface Finish in Diamond-Turned Optics
`41.10. Measuring Diamond-Turned Surfaces
`/ 41.10
`41.11. Conclusions
`/ 41,12
`41.12, References / 41.12
`
`Part 11. Optical Properties of Films and Coatings
`
`42.1
`
`
`
`Chapter 42. Optical Properties of Films and Coatings J. A. Dobrowolski 42.3
`
`/ 42.9
`
`42.1. Glossary / 42.3
`42.2,
`Introduction / 42.4
`42.3. Theory and Design of Optical Thin-Film Coatings
`42.4. Thin-Film Manufacturing Considerations / 42./4
`42.5. Measurements on Optical Coatings
`/ 42.16
`42.6. Antireflection Coatings
`/ 42.19
`42.7.
`Two-Material Periodic Multilayers—Theory / 42.34
`42.8. Multilayer Reflectors—Experimental Results
`/ 42.4]
`42.9.
`Cut-off, Heat-Control, and Solar-Cell Cover Filters
`/ 42.54
`42.10. Beam Splitters and Neutral Filters
`/ 42.6]
`42.11.
`Interference Polarizers and Polarizing Beam Splitters
`42.12. Bandpass Filters
`/ 42.73
`42.13. Multilayer for Two or Three Spectral Regions
`42.14, Phase Coatings
`/ 42.96
`42.15.
`Interference Filters with Low Reflection / 42.98
`42.16. Reflection Filters and Coatings
`/ 42.101
`42.17. Special-Purpose Coatings
`/ 42.107
`42.18. Acknowledgments
`/ 42.109
`42.19. References / 42.109
`
`/ 42.68
`
`/ 42.94
`
`
`
`0016
`
`0016
`
`

`

`xvi
`
`CONTENTS
`
`Part 12. Terrestrial Optics
`
`Chapter 43. Optical Properties of Water Curtis D. Mobley
`
`43.1
`
`43.3
`
`43.1.
`43.2.
`43.3.
`43.4,
`43.5.
`43.6.
`43.7.
`43.8.
`43.9,
`43.10.
`43.11.
`43.12.
`43.13.
`43.14.
`43.15.
`43.16.
`43.17.
`43.18.
`43.19.
`43.20.
`43.21.
`43.22.
`43.23.
`43.24,
`43.25.
`
`/ 43.17
`
`/ 43.23
`
`Introduction / 43.3
`/ 43.3
`Terminology, Notation, and Definitions
`Radiometric Quantities Useful in Hydrologic Optics
`Inherent Optical Properties / 43.4
`Apparent Optical Properties / 43.12
`Optically Significant Constituents of Natural Waters / 43.14
`Particle Size Distributions / 43.15
`Electromagnetic Properties of Water
`Index of Refraction / 43.18
`Measurement of Absorption / 43.20
`Absorption by Pure Sea Water
`/ 43.22
`Absorption by Dissolved Organic Matter
`Absorption by Phytoplankton / 43.24
`Absorption by Organic Detritus / 43.26
`Bio-Optical Models of Absorption / 43.27
`Measurementof Scattering / 43.30
`Scattering by Pure Water and by Pure Sea Water
`Scattering by Particles
`/ 43.33
`Wavelength Dependence of Scattering; Bio-Optical Models
`Beam Attenuation / 43.42
`/ 43.44
`Diffuse Attenuation and Jerlov Water Types
`Irradiance Reflectance and Remote Sensing / 43.48
`Inelastic Scattering and Polarization / 43.5]
`Acknowledgments
`/ 43.52
`References
`/ 43.52
`
`/ 43.6
`
`/ 43.3]
`
`/ 43.35
`
`Chapter 44. Atmospheric Optics Dennis K. Killinger, James H. Churnside, and
`Laurence S. Rothman
`
`44.1
`
`Glossary / 44.1
`Introduction / 44.2
`Physical and Chemical Composition of the Standard Atmosphere / 44.4
`Fundamental Theory of Interaction of Light with the Atmosphere / 44.10
`Prediction of Atmospheric Optical Transmission: Computer Programs and Databases / 44.2]
`Atmospheric Optical Turbulence / 44.25
`Examples of Atmospheric Optical Remote Sensing / 44.36
`Meteorological Optics
`/ 44.39
`Acknowledgments
`/ 44,43
`. References / 44.44
`
`Index follows Chapter 44
`
`1.1
`
`0017
`
`0017
`
`

`

`
`
`CHAPTER 12
`LIGHT-EMITTING DIODES
`
`Roland H. Haitz
`M. George Craford
`Robert H. Weissman
`Hewlett-Packard Co.,
`San Jose, California
`
`ce
`
`h
`
`Ee
`J
`k
`
`M
`No
`ny
`q
`T
`V
`Ni
`@
`A
`
`te
`Tt,
`
`velocity of light
`semiconductor energy bandgap
`Planck’s constant
`
`total LED current
`LEDcurrent density
`Boltzmann's constant
`
`magnification
`low index of refraction medium
`high index of refraction medium
`electron charge
`temperature
`applied voltage
`internal quantum efficiency
`critical angle
`emission wavelength
`total minority carrier lifetime
`nonradiative minority carrier lifetime
`radiative minority carrierlifetime
`
` INTRODUCTION
`
`Over the past 25 years the light-emitting diode (LED) has grown from a laboratory
`curiosity to a broadly used light source for signaling applications. In 1992 LED production
`reached a level of approximately 25 billion chips, and $2.5 billion worth of LED-based
`components were shipped to original equipment manufacturers.
`This article covers light-emitting diodes from the basic light-generation processes to
`
`12.1
`
`0018
`
`0018
`
`

`

`
`
`12.2
`
`OPTICAL SOURCES
`
`
`descriptions of LED products. First, we will deal with light-generation mechanisms .
`light extraction. Four major types of device structures—from simple grown or dig
`homojunctions to complex double heterojunction devices are discussed next, followeg
`
`description of the commercially important semiconductors used for LEDs,
`from
`pioneering GaAsP system to the AlGalnP system that is currently revolutionizing
`|,
`technology. Then processes used to fabricate LED chips are explained—the STOWth @
`
`GaAs and GaPsubstrates: the major techniques used for growing the epitixal mate;
`which the light-generation processes occur; and the steps required to create LED chipg
`
`to the point of assembly. Next the important topics of quality and reliability—in part;
`
`chip degradation and package-related failure mechanisms—will be addressed. Fip
`
`lamps, numeric and alphanumeric disp
`LED-based products,
`such as
`indicator
`
`optocouplers, fiber-optic transmitters, and sensors, are described.
`
`This article covers the mainstream structures, materials, processes, and applicatioy
`use today. It does not cover certain advanced structures, such as quantum well orstrai
`
`layer devices, a discussion of which can be found in Chap. 13, “Semiconductor Lage
`The readeris also referred to Chap. 13 for current information on edge-emitting LE
`
`whose fabrication and use are similar to lasers.
`For further information on the physics of light generation, the reader should con
`Refs. 1-11. Semiconductor material systems for LEDs are discussed in Refs. 13
`Crystal growth, epitaxial, and wafer fabrication processes are discussed in detail in R
`25-29.
`
`¥
`
`
`
`12.3 LIGHT-GENERATION PROCESSES
`
`
`Whena p-n junctionis biased in the forward direction, the resulting current flow across the
`boundary layer between the p and m regions has two components: holes are injectedf
`
`the p region into the » region and electrons are injected from the n region into th
`
`region. This so-called minority-carrier injection disturbs the carrier distribution from
`equilibrium condition. The injected minority carriers recombine with majority carriers u
`
`thermal equilibrium is reestablished. As long as the current continues to flow, mino:
`carrier injection continues. On both sides of the junction, a new steady-state ca
`
`distribution is established such that the recombination rate equals theinjection rate.'*
`Minority-carrier recombination is not instantaneous. The injected minority carriers ha
`
`to find proper conditions before the recombination process can take place. Both energ
`and momentum conservation have to be met. Energy conservation can be readily met s
`
`the photon doe
`a photon can take up the energy of the electron-hole pair, but
`
`contribute much to the conservation of momentum. Therefore, an electron can
`
`combine with a hole of practically identical and opposite momentum. Such pro
`conditions are not readily met, resulting in a delay. In other words, the injected mino
`
`carrier has a finite lifetime t, before it combines radiatively through the emission
`photon.’ This average time to recombineradiatively through the emission of light can
`
`visualized as the average timeit takes an injected minority carrier to find a majority carmi
`
`with the right momentum to allow radiative recombination without violating momen
`5
`conservation.
`Unfortunately, radiative recombination is not the only recombination path. There af
`also crystalline defects, such as impurities, dislocations, surfaces, etc., that can trap
`
`injected minority carriers. This type of recombination process may or may not gene
`light. Energy and momentum conservation are met through the successive emission
`instantaneous because the minom
`phonons. Again,
`the recombination process is not
`carrier first has to diffuse to a recombination site. This nonradiative recombination pro
`is characterized by a lifetime T,,.7
`Of primary interest
`in design of light-emitting diodes is the maximization of
`
`a
`te
`
`0019
`
`0019
`
`

`

`
`
`LIGHT-EMITTING DIODES
`
`12.3
`
`radiative recombination relative to the nonradiative recombination. In other words, it is of
`interest
`to develop conditions where radiative recombination occurs
`fairly rapidly
`compared with nonradiative recombination. The effectiveness of
`the light-generation
`process is described by the fraction of the injected minority carriers that recombine
`radiatively compared to the total
`injection. The internal quantum efficiency, 4; can be
`calculated from t, and t,. The combined recombination processes lead to a total
`minority-carrier lifetime t given by Eq. (1):
`
`L Ad
`-=—+4+—
`T
`T,
`Ty
`n, is simply computed from Eq.(1) as the fraction of carriers recombiningradiatively:
`
`Th
`n= res
`
`(1)
`
`(2)
`
`Ofinterest are two simple cases: in the case of excellent material quality (large t,,) or
`efficient radiative recombination conditions (small
`t,),
`the internal quantum efficiency
`approaches 100 percent. For the opposite case (¢,<t,), we find ,=1,/t.<«<1. As
`discussed under ‘‘Material Systems,” there are several families of III-V compounds with
`internal quantum efficiencies approaching 100 percent. There are also other useful
`semiconductor materials with internal quantum efficiencies in the 1 to 10 percent range.
`To find material systems for LEDs with a high quantum efficiency, one has to
`understand the band structure of semiconductors. The band structure describes the
`allowed distribution of energy and momentum states for electrons and holes (see Fig.
`1
`
`Energy
`
`
` Indirect Minimum
`
`
`Conduction Band
`
`
`
`
`Valence Band
`
` Radiative Transition A~ =9
`
`FIGURE 1 Energy band structure of a direct semiconductor showing radiative recombina-
`tion of electrons in the conduction band with holes in the valence band.
`
`Momentum
`
`0020
`
`0020
`
`

`

`12.4
`
`
`
`
`
`OPTICAL SOURCES
`
`Energy
`
`Conduction Band
`
`
`
`Indirect Minimum
`
`
`
`recombination of conduction-band electrons and valence-band holes is generally forbidden.
`
`
`
`Valence Band
`
`
`Forbidden Transition
`
`FIGURE 2 Energy bandstructure of an indirect semiconductor showing the conduction-band
`minima and valence-band maximum at different positions in momentum space. Radiative
`
`Momentum
`
`and Ref. 2). In practically all semiconductors the lower band, also knownas the val
`band, has a fairly simple structure, a paraboloid around the (0,0,0) crystalline direc
`
`Holes will
`take up a position near the apex of the paraboloid and have very s
`momentum, The upper band, also known as the conduction band, is different for va
`
`semiconductor materials. All semiconductors have multiple valleys in the conduction band
`Of practical interest are the valleys with the lowest energy. Semiconductor materials aj
`
`classified as either direct or indirect.'* In a direct semiconductor, the lowestvalley in
`conduction band is directly above the apex of the valence-band paraboloid. In an ind
`semiconductor,
`the lowest valleys are not at (0,0,0), but at different position
`momentum/energy space (see Fig. 2). Majority or minority carriers mostly occupy 1
`lowest energy states, i.e., holes near the top of the valence band paraboloid andelect
`near the bottom of the lowest conduction-band valley.
`In the case of a direct semiconductor the electrons are positioned directly above
`holes at the same momentum coordinates.It is relatively easy to match up electrons
`holes with proper momentum-conserving conditions. Thus, the resulting radiativelife
`t, is short. On the other hand, electrons in an indirect valley will find it practi
`impossible to find momentum-matching holes and the resulting radiative lifetime W
`long. Injected carriers in indirect material generally recombine nonradiatively throug
`defects.
`
`In a direct semiconductor, such as GaAs, the radiative lifetime 7, is in the range
`1-100 ns, depending on doping, temperature, and otherfactors.It is relatively easy tO gro
`crystals with sufficiently low defect density such that t, is in the same ra