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`

`

`HANDBOOK
`OF
`BATTERIES
`
`David Linden Editor
`
`Thomas B. Reddy Editor
`
`Third Edition
`
`McGraw-Hill
`New York Chicago San Francisco Lisbon London
`Madrid Mexico City Milan New Delhi San Juan Seoul
`Singapore Sydney Toronto
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`

`Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
`
`Handbook of batteries / David Linden, Thomas B. Reddy.—3d ed.
`p.
`cm.
`Rev. ed. of: Handbook of batteries / David Linden, editor in chief. 2nd c1995.
`Includes bibliographical references and index.
`ISBN 0-07-135978-8
`1. Electric batteries—Handbooks, manuals, etc.
`batteries.
`II.
`Linden, David, III. Reddy, Thomas B.
`
`I. Title: Handbook of
`
`TK2901.H36 2001
`621 31⬘242—dc21
`
`2001030790
`
`Copyright 䉷 2002, 1999, 1994, 1972 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
`All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America. Except as per-
`mitted under the United States Copyright Act of 1976, no part of this pub-
`lication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or
`stored in a data base or retrieval system, without the prior written permission
`of the publisher.
`
`1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 DOC / DOC 0 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
`
`ISBN 0-07-135978-8
`
`The sponsoring editor for this book was Steve Chapman and the
`production supervisor was Sherri Souffrance. It was set in Times Roman
`by Pro-Image Corporation.
`
`Printed and bound by R. R. Donnelley & Sons Company.
`
`This book is printed on acid-free paper.
`
`McGraw-Hill books are available at special quantity discounts to use as pre-
`miums and sales promotions, or for use in corporate training programs. For
`more information, please write to the Director of Special Sales, Professional
`Publishing, McGraw-Hill, Two Penn Plaza, New York, NY 10121-2298. Or
`contact your local bookstore.
`
`Information contained in this work has been obtained by
`McGraw-Hill, Inc. from sources believed to be reliable. However,
`neither McGraw-Hill nor its authors guarantees the accuracy or
`completeness of any information published herein and neither
`McGraw-Hill nor its authors shall be responsible for any errors,
`omissions, or damages arising out of use of this information. This
`work is published with the understanding that McGraw-Hill and
`its authors are supplying information but are not attempting to
`render engineering or other professional services. If such services
`are required, the assistance of an appropriate professional should
`be sought.
`
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`

`

`CONTENTS
`
`Contributors
`Preface
`xix
`
`xv
`
`PART 1 Principles of Operation
`
`Chapter 1 Basic Concepts
`
`1.1 Components of Cells and Batteries / 1.3
`1.2 Classification of Cells and Batteries / 1.4
`1.3 Operation of a Cell / 1.7
`1.4 Theoretical Cell Voltage, Capacity, and Energy / 1.9
`1.5 Specific Energy and Energy Density of Practical Batteries / 1.14
`1.6 Upper Limits of Specific Energy and Energy Density / 1.17
`
`Chapter 2 Electrochemical Principles and Reactions
`
`2.1 Introduction / 2.1
`2.2 Thermodynamic Background / 2.4
`2.3 Electrode Processes / 2.5
`2.4 Electrical Double-Layer Capacity and Ionic Adsorption / 2.11
`2.5 Mass Transport to the Electrode Surface / 2.16
`2.6 Electroanalytical Techniques / 2.20
`
`Chapter 3 Factors Affecting Battery Performance
`
`3.1 General Characteristics / 3.1
`3.2 Factors Affecting Battery Performance / 3.1
`
`Chapter 4 Battery Standardization
`
`4.1 General / 4.1
`4.2 International Standards / 4.3
`4.3 Concepts of Standardization / 4.4
`4.4 IEC and ANSI Nomenclature Systems / 4.5
`4.5 Terminals / 4.8
`4.6 Electrical Performance / 4.9
`4.7 Markings / 4.10
`4.8 Cross-References of ANSI IEC Battery Standards / 4.11
`4.9 Listing of IEC Standard Round Primary Batteries / 4.12
`4.10 Standard SLI and Other Lead-Acid Batteries / 4.13
`4.11 Regulatory and Safety Standards / 4.21
`
`1.3
`
`2.1
`
`3.1
`
`4.1
`
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`

`vi
`
`CONTENTS
`
`Chapter 5 Battery Design
`
`5.1 General / 5.1
`5.2 Designing to Eliminate Potential Safety Problems / 5.1
`5.3 Battery Safeguards when Using Discrete Batteries / 5.7
`5.4 Battery Construction / 5.10
`5.5 Design of Rechargeable Batteries / 5.14
`5.6 Electronic Energy Management and Display—‘‘Smart’’ Batteries / 5.18
`5.7 Guidelines / 5.22
`
`Chapter 6 Selection and Application of Batteries
`
`6.1 General Characteristics / 6.1
`6.2 Major Considerations in Selecting a Battery / 6.2
`6.3 Battery Applications / 6.3
`6.4 Portable Applications / 6.8
`
`PART 2 Primary Batteries
`
`Chapter 7 Primary Batteries—Introduction
`
`5.1
`
`6.1
`
`7.3
`
`7.1 General Characteristics and Applications of Primary Batteries / 7.3
`7.2 Types and Characteristics of Primary Batteries / 7.5
`7.3 Comparison of the Performance Characteristics of Primary Battery
`Systems / 7.9
`7.4 Recharging Primary Batteries / 7.21
`
`Chapter 8 Zinc-Carbon Batteries (Leclanche´ and Zinc Chloride Cell Systems)
`
`8.1
`
`8.1 General Characteristics / 8.1
`8.2 Chemistry / 8.4
`8.3 Types of Cells and Batteries / 8.5
`8.4 Construction / 8.7
`8.5 Cell Components / 8.11
`8.6 Performance Characteristics / 8.17
`8.7 Special Designs / 8.37
`8.8 Types and Sizes of Available Cells and Batteries / 8.40
`
`Chapter 9 Magnesium and Aluminum Batteries
`
`9.1
`
`9.1 General Characteristics / 9.1
`9.2 Chemistry / 9.2
`9.3 Construction of Mg / MnO2 Batteries / 9.4
`9.4 Performance Characteristics of Mg / MnO2 Batteries / 9.6
`9.5 Sizes and Types of Mg / MnO2 Batteries / 9.12
`9.6 Other Types of Magnesium Primary Batteries / 9.13
`9.7 Aluminum Primary Batteries / 9.13
`
`Chapter 10 Alkaline-Manganese Dioxide Batteries
`
`10.1
`
`10.1 General Characteristics / 10.1
`10.2 Chemistry / 10.3
`10.3 Cell Components and Materials / 10.5
`10.4 Construction / 10.10
`10.5 Performance Characteristics / 10.13
`10.6 Battery Types and Sizes / 10.27
`10.7 Premium Zinc / Alkaline / Manganese Dioxide High-Rate Batteries / 10.29
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`

`

`Chapter 11 Mercuric Oxide Batteries
`
`CONTENTS
`
`vii
`
`11.1
`
`11.1 General Characteristics / 11.1
`11.2 Chemistry / 11.2
`11.3 Cell Components / 11.3
`11.4 Construction / 11.5
`11.5 Performance Characteristics of Zinc / Mercuric Oxide Batteries / 11.8
`11.6 Performance Characteristics of Cadmium / Mercuric Oxide Batteries / 11.13
`
`Chapter 12 Silver Oxide Batteries
`
`12.1 General Characteristics / 12.1
`12.2 Battery Chemistry and Components / 12.2
`12.3 Construction / 12.10
`12.4 Performance Characteristics / 12.11
`12.5 Cell Sizes and Types / 12.16
`
`Chapter 13 Zinc/Air Batteries—Button Configuration
`
`13.1 General Characteristics / 13.1
`13.2 Chemistry / 13.2
`13.3 Construction / 13.3
`13.4 Performance Characteristics / 13.6
`
`Chapter 14 Lithium Batteries
`
`12.1
`
`13.1
`
`14.1
`
`14.1 General Characteristics / 14.1
`14.2 Chemistry / 14.5
`14.3 Characteristics of Lithium Primary Batteries / 14.9
`14.4 Safety and Handling of Lithium Batteries / 14.17
`14.5 Lithium / Sulfur Dioxide (Li / SO2) Batteries / 14.19
`14.6 Lithium / Thionyl Chloride (Li / SOCl2) Batteries / 14.31
`14.7 Lithium / Oxychloride Batteries / 14.49
`14.8 Lithium / Manganese Dioxide (Li / MnO2) Batteries / 14.55
`14.9 Lithium / Carbon Monofluoride {Li / (CF)n} Batteries / 14.72
`14.10 Lithium / Iron Disulfide (Li / FeS2) Batteries / 14.84
`14.11 Lithium / Copper Oxide (Li / CuO) and Lithium / Copper Oxyphosphate
`[Li / Cu4O(PO4)2] Cells / 14.92
`14.12 Lithium / Silver Vanadium Oxide Batteries / 14.99
`
`Chapter 15 Solid-Electrolyte Batteries
`
`15.1
`
`15.1 General Characteristics / 15.1
`15.2 Li / LiI(Al2O3) / Metal Salt Batteries / 15.3
`15.3 The Lithium / Iodine Battery / 15.9
`15.4 Ag / RbAg4I5 / Me4NIn,C Batteries / 15.22
`
`PART 3 Reserve Batteries
`
`Chapter 16 Reserve Batteries—Introduction
`
`16.3
`
`16.1 Classification of Reserve Batteries / 16.3
`16.2 Characteristics of Reserve Batteries / 16.4
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`viii
`
`CONTENTS
`
`Chapter 17 Magnesium Water-Activated Batteries
`
`17.1
`
`17.1 General Characteristics / 17.1
`17.2 Chemistry / 17.2
`17.3 Types of Water-Activated Batteries / 17.3
`17.4 Construction / 17.6
`17.5 Performance Characteristics / 17.10
`17.6 Battery Applications / 17.23
`17.7 Battery Types and Sizes / 17.26
`
`Chapter 18 Zinc/Silver Oxide Reserve Batteries
`
`18.1
`
`18.1 General Characteristics / 18.1
`18.2 Chemistry / 18.2
`18.3 Construction / 18.2
`18.4 Performance Characteristics / 18.7
`18.5 Cell and Battery Types and Sizes / 18.12
`18.6 Special Features and Handling / 18.16
`18.7 Cost / 18.16
`
`Chapter 19 Spin-Dependent Reserve Batteries
`
`19.1
`
`19.1 General Characteristics / 19.1
`19.2 Chemistry / 19.2
`19.3 Design Considerations / 19.3
`19.4 Performance Characteristics / 19.6
`
`Chapter 20 Ambient-Temperature Lithium Anode Reserve Batteries
`
`20.1
`
`20.1 General Characteristics / 20.1
`20.2 Chemistry / 20.2
`20.3 Construction / 20.4
`20.4 Performance Characteristics / 20.15
`
`Chapter 21 Thermal Batteries
`
`21.1
`
`21.1 General Characteristics / 21.1
`21.2 Description of Electrochemical Systems / 21.3
`21.3 Cell Chemistry / 21.7
`21.4 Cell Construction / 21.10
`21.5 Cell-Stack Designs / 21.14
`21.6 Performance Characteristics / 21.16
`21.7 Testing and Surveillance / 21.20
`21.8 New Developments / 21.20
`
`PART 4 Secondary Batteries
`
`Chapter 22 Secondary Batteries—Introduction
`
`22.3
`
`22.1 General Characteristics and Applications of Secondary Batteries / 22.3
`22.2 Types and Characteristics of Secondary Batteries / 22.8
`22.3 Comparison of Performance Characteristics for Secondary Battery
`Systems / 22.11
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`

`Chapter 23 Lead-Acid Batteries
`
`CONTENTS
`
`ix
`
`23.1
`
`23.1 General Characteristics / 23.1
`23.2 Chemistry / 23.6
`23.3 Constructional Features, Materials, and Manufacturing Methods / 23.16
`23.4 SLI (Automotive) Batteries: Construction and Performance / 23.35
`23.5 Deep-Cycle and Traction Batteries: Construction and Performance / 23.44
`23.6 Stationary Batteries: Construction and Performance / 23.54
`23.7 Charging and Charging Equipment / 23.67
`23.8 Maintenance Safety, and Operational Features / 23.75
`23.9 Applications and Markets / 23.81
`
`Chapter 24 Valve Regulated Lead-Acid Batteries
`
`24.1
`
`24.1 General Characteristics / 24.1
`24.2 Chemistry / 24.3
`24.3 Cell Construction / 24.4
`24.4 Performance Characteristics / 24.8
`24.5 Charging Characteristics / 24.27
`24.6 Safety and Handling / 24.39
`24.7 Battery Types and Sizes / 24.40
`24.8 Applications of VRLA Batteries to Uninterruptible Power Supplies / 24.43
`
`Chapter 25 Iron Electrode Batteries
`
`25.1
`
`25.1 General Characteristics / 25.1
`25.2 Chemistry of Nickel-Iron Batteries / 25.2
`25.3 Conventional Nickel-Iron Batteries / 25.4
`25.4 Advanced Nickel-Iron Batteries / 25.13
`25.5 Iron / Air Batteries / 25.16
`25.6 Silver-Iron Battery / 25.19
`25.7 Iron Materials as Cathodes / 25.23
`
`Chapter 26 Industrial and Aerospace Nickel-Cadmium Batteries
`
`26.1
`
`26.1 Introduction / 26.1
`26.2 Chemistry / 26.4
`26.3 Construction / 26.4
`26.4 Performance Characteristics / 26.9
`26.5 Charging Characteristics / 26.14
`26.6 Fiber Nickel-Cadmium (FNC) Battery Technology / 26.15
`26.7 Manufacturers and Market Segments / 26.24
`26.8 Applications / 26.28
`
`Chapter 27 Vented Sintered-Plate Nickel-Cadmium Batteries
`
`27.1
`
`27.1 General Characteristics / 27.1
`27.2 Chemistry / 27.2
`27.3 Construction / 27.3
`27.4 Performance Characteristics / 27.7
`27.5 Charging Characteristics / 27.16
`27.6 Maintenance Procedures / 27.20
`27.7 Reliability / 27.22
`27.8 Cell and Battery Designs / 27.26
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`x
`
`CONTENTS
`
`Chapter 28 Portable Sealed Nickel-Cadmium Batteries
`
`28.1
`
`28.1 General Characteristics / 28.1
`28.2 Chemistry / 28.2
`28.3 Construction / 28.3
`28.4 Performance Characteristics / 28.6
`28.5 Charging Characteristics / 28.20
`28.6 Special-Purpose Batteries / 28.26
`28.7 Battery Types and Sizes / 28.32
`
`Chapter 29 Portable Sealed Nickel-Metal Hydride Batteries
`
`29.1
`
`29.1 General Characteristics / 29.1
`29.2 Chemistry / 29.2
`29.3 Construction / 29.4
`29.4 Discharge Characteristics / 29.7
`29.5 Charging Sealed Nickel-Metal Hydride Batteries / 29.21
`29.6 Cycle and Battery Life / 29.29
`29.7 Proper Use and Handling / 29.32
`29.8 Applications / 29.32
`29.9 Battery Types and Manufacturers / 29.32
`
`Chapter 30 Propulsion and Industrial Nickel-Metal Hydride Batteries
`
`30.1
`
`30.1 Introduction / 30.1
`30.2 General Characteristics / 30.2
`30.3 Chemistry / 30.3
`30.4 Construction / 30.4
`30.5 EV Battery Packs / 30.14
`30.6 HEV Battery Packs / 30.16
`30.7 Fuel Cell Startup and Power Assist / 30.18
`30.8 Other Applications / 30.18
`30.9 Discharge Performance / 30.22
`30.10 Charge Methods / 30.29
`30.11 Thermal Management / 30.30
`30.12 Electrical Isolation / 30.31
`30.13 Development Targets / 30.32
`
`Chapter 31 Nickel-Zinc Batteries
`
`31.1 General Characteristics / 31.1
`31.2 Chemistry / 31.2
`31.3 Cell Components / 31.3
`31.4 Construction / 31.12
`31.5 Performance Characteristics / 31.17
`31.6 Charging Characteristics / 31.25
`31.7 Applications / 31.29
`31.8 Handling and Storage / 31.35
`
`Chapter 32 Nickel-Hydrogen Batteries
`
`32.1 General Characteristics / 32.1
`32.2 Chemistry / 32.2
`32.3 Cell and Electrode-Stack Components / 32.3
`32.4 Ni-H2 Cell Construction / 32.6
`32.5 Ni-H2 Battery Design / 32.11
`32.6 Applications / 32.16
`32.7 Performance Characteristics / 32.19
`32.8 Advanced Designs / 32.26
`
`31.1
`
`32.1
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`CONTENTS
`
`xi
`
`33.1
`
`Chapter 33 Silver Oxide Batteries
`
`33.1 General Characteristics / 33.1
`33.2 Chemistry / 33.3
`33.3 Cell Construction and Components / 33.4
`33.4 Performance Characteristics / 33.8
`33.5 Charging Characteristics / 33.20
`33.6 Cell Types and Sizes / 33.22
`33.7 Special Features and Handling / 33.25
`33.8 Applications / 33.25
`33.9 Recent Developments / 33.28
`
`Chapter 34 Rechargeable Lithium Batteries (Ambient Temperature)
`
`34.1
`
`34.1 General Characteristics / 34.1
`34.2 Chemistry / 34.4
`34.3 Characteristics of Lithium Rechargeable Batteries / 34.17
`34.4 Characteristics of Specific Rechargeable Lithium Metal Batteries / 34.25
`
`Chapter 35 Lithium-Ion Batteries
`
`35.1
`
`35.1 General Characteristics / 35.1
`35.2 Chemistry / 35.4
`35.3 Construction of Cylindrical and Prismatic Li-Ion Cells and Batteries / 35.31
`35.4 Li-Ion Battery Performance / 35.35
`35.5 Charge Characteristics of Li-Ion Batteries / 35.67
`35.6 Safety Testing of Cylindrical C / LiCoO2 Batteries / 35.70
`35.7 Polymer Li-Ion Batteries / 35.71
`35.8 Thin-Film, Solid-State Li-Ion Batteries / 35.85
`35.9 Conclusions and Future Trends / 35.90
`
`Chapter 36 Rechargeable Zinc/Alkaline/Manganese Dioxide Batteries
`
`36.1
`
`36.1 General Characteristics / 36.1
`36.2 Chemistry / 36.2
`36.3 Construction / 36.4
`36.4 Performance / 36.5
`36.5 Charge Methods / 36.13
`36.6 Types of Cells and Batteries / 36.17
`
`PART 5 Advanced Batteries for Electric Vehicles and Emerging
`Applications
`
`Chapter 37 Advanced Batteries for Electric Vehicles and Emerging
`Applications—Introduction
`
`37.3
`
`37.1 Performance Requirements for Advanced Rechargeable Batteries / 37.3
`37.2 Characteristics and Development of Rechargeable Batteries for Emerging
`Applications / 37.9
`37.3 Near-Term Rechargeable Batteries / 37.17
`37.4 Advanced Rechargeable Batteries—General Characteristics / 37.18
`37.5 Refuelable Batteries and Fuel Cells—An Alternative to Advanced
`Rechargeable Batteries / 37.23
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`

`xii
`
`CONTENTS
`
`Chapter 38 Metal/Air Batteries
`
`38.1 General Characteristics / 38.1
`38.2 Chemistry / 38.4
`38.3 Zinc / Air Batteries / 38.6
`38.4 Aluminum / Air Batteries / 38.30
`38.5 Magnesium / Air Batteries / 38.44
`38.6 Lithium / Air Batteries / 38.46
`
`Chapter 39 Zinc/Bromine Batteries
`
`39.1 General Characteristics / 39.1
`39.2 Description of the Electrochemical System / 39.2
`39.3 Construction / 39.4
`39.4 Performance / 39.6
`39.5 Tradeoff Considerations / 39.10
`39.6 Safety and Hazards / 39.11
`39.7 Applications and System Designs / 39.11
`39.8 Developments and Projections / 39.20
`
`Chapter 40 Sodium-Beta Batteries
`
`40.1 General Characteristics / 40.1
`40.2 Description of the Electrochemical Systems / 40.3
`40.3 Cell Design and Performance Characteristics / 40.7
`40.4 Battery Design and Performance Characteristics / 40.17
`40.5 Applications / 40.28
`
`Chapter 41 Lithium/Iron Sulfide Batteries
`
`41.1 General Characteristics / 41.1
`41.2 Description of Electrochemical System / 41.3
`41.3 Construction / 41.4
`41.4 Performance Characteristics / 41.6
`41.5 Applications and Battery Designs / 41.15
`
`PART 6 Portable Fuel Cells
`
`Chapter 42 Portable Fuel Cells—Introduction
`
`42.1 General Characteristics / 42.3
`42.2 Operation of the Fuel Cell / 42.5
`42.3 Sub-Kilowatt Fuel Cells / 42.9
`42.4 Innovative Designs for Low Wattage Fuel Cells / 42.12
`
`Chapter 43 Small Fuel Cells (Less than 1000 Watts)
`
`43.1 General / 43.1
`43.2 Applicable Fuel Cell Technologies / 43.2
`43.3 System Requirements / 43.4
`43.4 Fuel Processing and Storage Technologies / 43.7
`43.5 Fuel Cell Stack Technology / 43.12
`43.6 Hardware and Performance / 43.14
`
`38.1
`
`39.1
`
`40.1
`
`41.1
`
`42.3
`
`43.1
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`

`PART 7 Appendices
`
`A. Definitions
`
`B. Standard Reduction Potentials
`
`C. Electrochemical Equivalents of Battery Materials
`
`D. Standard Symbols and Constants
`
`E. Conversion Factors
`
`F. Bibliography
`
`G. Battery Manufacturers and R&D Organizations
`
`Index follows Appendices
`
`CONTENTS
`
`xiii
`
`A.1
`
`B.1
`
`C.1
`
`D.1
`
`E.1
`
`F.1
`
`G.1
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`

`

`CONTRIBUTORS
`
`Vaidevutis Alminauskas U.S. Naval Surface Warfare Center, Crane Division
`Austin Attewell
`International Power Sources Symposium, Ltd.
`Terrill B. Atwater Power Sources Division, U.S. Army CECOM
`William L. Auxer Pennsylvania Crusher Corp.
`Christopher A. Baker Acme Electric Corp., Aerospace Division
`Gary A. Bayles Consultant ( formerly with Northrup-Grumann Corp.)
`Stephen F. Bender Rosemount, Inc.
`Asaf A. Benderly Harry Diamond Laboratories, U.S. Army (retired )
`Jeffrey W. Braithwaite Sandia National Laboratories
`John Broadhead U.S. Nanocorp and U.S. Microbattery
`Ralph Brodd Broddarp of Nevada, Inc.
`Jack Brill Eagle-Picher Technologies, LLC
`Curtis Brown Eagle-Picher Technologies, LLC
`Paul C. Butler Sandia National Laboratories
`Anthony G. Cannone Rutgers University and University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey
`Joseph A. Carcone Sanyo Energy Corp.
`Arthur J. Catotti General Electric Co. (retired )
`Allen Charkey Evercel Corp.
`David L. Chua Maxpower, Inc.
`Frank Ciliberti Duracell, Inc. (retired )
`Dwayne Coates Boeing Satellite Systems
`John W. Cretzmeyer Medtronic, Inc. (retired )
`Jeffrey R. Dahn Dalhousie University, Canada
`Josef David-Ivad Technische Universitat, Graz, Austria
`James M. Dines Eagle-Picher Industries, Inc. (retired )
`James D. Dunlop Comsat Laboratories (retired )
`Phillip A. Eidler Eaton Corp.
`Grant M. Ehrlich International Fuel Cells
`Ron J. Ekern Rayovac Corp. (retired) )
`William J. Eppley Maxpower, Inc.
`Rex Erisman Eagle-Picher Technologies, LLC
`
`xv
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`

`xvi
`
`CONTRIBUTORS
`
`John M. Evjen Consultant ( formerly with General Electric Co.)
`John Fehling Bren-Tronics, Inc.
`Michael Fetcenko Ovonic Battery Co.
`H. Frank Gibbard H Power Corp.
`Allan B. Goldberg U.S. Army Research Laboratory
`Patrick G. Grimes Grimes Associates
`Robert P. Hamlen Power Sources Division, U.S. Army CECOM
`Ronald O. Hammel Consultant ( formerly with Hawker Energy Products, Inc.)
`Robert J. Horning Valence Technology, Inc.
`Gary L. Henriksen Argonne National Laboratory
`Sohrab Hossain LiTech, LLC
`James C. Hunter Eveready Battery Co., Inc. (deceased )
`John F. Jackovitz University of Pittsburgh
`Andrew N. Jansen Argonne National Laboratory
`Alexander P. Karpinski Yardney Technical Products, Inc.
`Peter A. Karpinski PAK Enterprises
`Arthur Kaufman H Power Corp.
`Sandra E. Klassen Sandia National Laboratories
`Visvaldis Klasons Consultant ( formerly with Catalyst Research Corp.)
`Ralph F. Koontz Magnavox Co. (retired )
`Karl Kordesch Technische Universitat, Graz, Austria
`Han C. Kuo NEXCell Battery Co., Taiwan
`Charles M. Lamb Eagle-Picher Technologies, LLC
`Duane M. Larsen Rayovac Corp. (retired )
`Peter Lex ZBB Technologies, Inc.
`David Linden Consultant ( formerly with U.S. Army Electronics Command )
`R. David Lucero Eagle-Picher Technologies, LLC
`Dennis W. McComsey Eveready Battery Co., Inc.
`Doug Magnusen GP Batteries, USA
`Sid Megahed Rechargeable Battery Corp. (deceased )
`Ronald C. Miles Johnson Controls, Inc.
`Elliot M. Morse Eagle-Picher Industries, Inc. (retired )
`Denis Naylor Duracell, Inc. (deceased )
`Arne O. Nilsson Consultant ( formerly with SAFT NIFE and Acme Electric)
`James E. Oxley Oxley Research, Inc.
`Boone B. Owens Corrosion Research Center, University of Minnesota
`Joseph L. Passaniti Rayovac Corp.
`Stefano Passerini Dipartimento Energia, Divisione Technologie Energetiche Avanzate, Italy
`
`Eve Energy Co., Ltd v.
`Varta Microbattery Gmbh
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`Eve Ex. 1009, p. 14
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`

`

`CONTRIBUTORS
`
`xvii
`
`David F. Pickett Eagle-Picher Technologies, LLC
`Thomas B. Reddy Consultant, Rutgers University and University of Medicine and Dentistry of New
`Jersey
`Terrence F. Reise Duracell, Inc.
`Alvin J. Salkind Rutgers University and University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey
`Robert F. Scarr Eveready Battery Co., Inc. (retired )
`Stephen F. Schiffer Lockheed Martin Corp.
`Paul M. Skarstad Medtronic, Inc.
`Phillip J. Slezak Eveready Battery Co., Inc.
`John Springstead Rayovac Corp.
`Patrick J. Spellman Rayovac Corp. (retired )
`Philip C. Symons Electrochemical Engineering Consultants, Inc.
`Russell H. Toye Eveready Battery Co., Inc.
`Forrest A. Trumbore University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey
`Darrel F. Untereker Medtronic, Inc.
`Steven P. Wicelinski Duracell, Inc.
`
`Eve Energy Co., Ltd v.
`Varta Microbattery Gmbh
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`Eve Ex. 1009, p. 15
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`

`

`ABOUT THE EDITORS
`
`David Linden has been active in battery research, development, and engineering
`for more than 50 years. He was Director of the Power Sources Division of the U.S.
`Army Electronics R&D Command. Many of the batteries and power sources cur-
`rently in use, including lithium batteries and fuel cells, resulted from R&D programs
`at that Division. Mr. Linden is now a battery consultant working with Duracell, Inc.
`and other companies on the development and application of newer primary and
`rechargeable batteries. He is a member of national and international groups estab-
`lishing standards for these new technologies.
`
`Thomas B. Reddy, Ph.D., is an Adjunct Assistant Professor in the Bio-Engineering
`Division of the Robert Wood Johnson Medical School of the University of Medicine
`and Dentistry of New Jersey. He is also a Visiting Scientist in the School of En-
`gineering of Rutgers University. He was a leader in the development of lithium
`primary batteries and served as a Vice President of Power Conversion, Inc, (cur-
`rently Hawker Eternacell, Inc.), and Yardney Technical Products, Inc., and continues
`to act as a consultant to Yardney and to other organizations.
`
`Eve Energy Co., Ltd v.
`Varta Microbattery Gmbh
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`Eve Ex. 1009, p. 16
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`

`

`PREFACE
`
`Since the publication of the second edition of the Handbook of Batteries in 1995, the
`battery industry has grown remarkedly. This growth has been due to the broad increase in
`the use of battery-operated portable electronics and the renewed interest in low- or zero-
`emission vehicles and other emerging applications with requirements that can best be met
`with batteries. Annual worldwide battery sales currently are about $50 billion, more than
`double the sales of a decade ago.
`This growth and the demand for batteries meeting increasingly stringent performance
`requirements have been a challenge to the battery industry. The theoretical and practical
`limits of battery technology can be a barrier to meeting some performance requirements.
`Batteries are also cited as the limiting factor for achieving the application’s desired service
`life. Nevertheless, substantial advances have been made both with improvement of the per-
`formance of the conventional battery systems and the development of new battery systems.
`These advances have been covered by significant revisions and updating of each of the
`appropriate chapters in this third edition of the Handbook.
`Recent emphasis on the performance of the primary alkaline manganese dioxide battery
`has been directed toward improving its high-rate performance to meet the requirements of
`the new digital cameras and other portable electronics. The new high-rate (Ultra or Premium)
`battery was first sold in 2000 and already commands about 25% of the market.
`The lithium primary battery continues its steady growth, dominating the camera market
`and applications requiring high power and performance over long periods of time. It now
`accounts for over $1 billion in annual sales.
`Development has been most active in the area of portable rechargeable batteries to meet
`the needs of the rapidly growing portable electronics market. The portable nickel-metal
`hydride battery, which was becoming the dominant rechargeable battery replacing the nickel-
`cadmium battery, is itself being replaced by the newer lithium-ion battery. Recognizing the
`significance of this new technology, a new chapter, Chapter 35 ‘‘Lithium-ion Batteries,’’ has
`been added to the third edition of the Handbook.
`The revived interest in electric vehicles, hybrid electric vehicles, and energy storage sys-
`tems for utilities has accelerated the development of larger-sized rechargeable batteries. Be-
`cause of the low specific energy of lead-acid batteries and the still unresolved problems with
`the high temperature batteries, the nickel-metal hydride battery is currently the battery system
`of choice for hybrid electric vehicles. This subject is covered in another new chapter, Chapter
`30 ‘‘Propulsion and Industrial Nickel-Metal Hydride Batteries.’’
`The inherent high energy conversion efficiency and the renewed interest in fuel cell tech-
`nology for electric vehicles has encouraged the development of small subkilowatt fuel cell
`power units and portable fuel cells as potential replacements for batteries. Because of this
`new interest, Part 6 ‘‘Portable Fuel Cells’’ has been added that includes two new chapters,
`Chapters 42 and 43, covering portable fuel cells and small subkilowatt fuel cells, respectively.
`Large fuel cells are beyond the scope of this third edition of the Handbook. Much information
`has been published about this subject; see references listed in Appendix F.
`Several editorial changes have been instituted in the preparation of this edition of the
`Handbook. The term ‘‘specific energy’’ is now used in place of gravimetric energy density
`
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`Eve Energy Co., Ltd v.
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`Eve Ex. 1009, p. 17
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`

`

`xx
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`PREFACE
`
`(e.g., Wh/kg). The term ‘‘energy density’’ now refers to volumetric energy density (Wh/L).
`Similarly, ‘‘specific power’’ (W/kg) and power density (W/L) refer to power per unit weight
`and volume, respectively.
`Another point that has been defined more clearly in this edition is the distinction between
`a ‘‘cell’’ and a ‘‘battery.’’ Manufacturers most commonly identify the product they offer for
`sale as a ‘‘battery’’ regardless of whether it is a single-cell battery or a multicell one. Ac-
`cordingly, we have defined the cell as ‘‘the basic electrochemical unit providing a source of
`electrical energy by direct conversion of chemical energy. The cell consists of an assembly
`of electrodes, separators, electrolyte, container, and terminals.’’ The battery is defined as ‘‘the
`complete product and consists of one or more electrochemical cells, electrically connected
`in an appropriate series/parallel arrangement to provide the required operating voltage and
`current levels, including, if any, monitors, controls and other ancillary components (e.g.,
`fuses, diodes, case, terminals, and markings).’’
`In this edition, the term ‘‘cell’’ has been used, almost universally by all of the authors,
`when describing the cell components of the battery and its chemistry. Constructional features
`have been described as either cells, batteries, or configurations depending on the particular
`choice of the author. This has not been uniformly edited, as it does not appear to cause any
`confusion. The term ‘‘battery’’ has been generally used when presenting the performance
`characteristics of the product. Usually the data is presented on the basis of a single-cell
`battery, recognizing that the performance of a multicell battery could be different, depending
`on its design. In some instances, in order not to mislead the reader relative to the performance
`of the final battery product, some data (particularly in Chapter 35 on lithium-ion batteries
`and in the chapters in Part 5 on advanced batteries) is presented on a ‘‘cell’’ basis as hard-
`ware, thermal controls, safety devices, etc., that may ultimately be added to the battery (and
`have not been included in the cell) would have a significant impact on performance.
`This third edition of the Handbook of Batteries has now grown to over 1400 pages,
`recognizing the broad scope of battery technology and the wide range of battery applications.
`This work would not have been possible without the interest and contributions of more than
`eighty battery scientists and engineers who participated in its preparation. Their cooperation
`is gratefully acknowledged, as well as the companies and agencies who supported these
`contributing authors.
`We also acknowledge the efforts of Stephen S. Chapman, Executive Editor, Professional
`Book Group, McGraw-Hill Companies for initiating this project and the McGraw-Hill staff,
`and Lois Kisch, Tom Reddy’s secretary, for their assistance toward its completion. We further
`wish to express out thanks to our wives, Rose Linden and Mary Ellen Scarborough, for their
`encouragement and support and to Mary Ellen for the editorial assistance she provided.
`
`David Linden
`Thomas B. Reddy
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`Eve Energy Co., Ltd v.
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`Eve Ex. 1009, p. 18
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`

`

`P • A • R • T •
`
`1
`
`PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION
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`Eve Ex. 1009, p. 19
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`

`

`CHAPTER 1
`BASIC CONCEPTS
`
`David Linden
`
`1.1 COMPONENTS OF CELLS AND BATTERIES
`
`A battery is a device that converts the chemical energy contained in its active materials
`directly into electric energy by means of an electrochemical oxidation-reduction (redox)
`reaction. In the case of a rechargeable system, the battery is recharged by a reversal of the
`process. This type of reaction involves the transfer of electrons from one material to another
`through an electric circuit. In a nonelectrochemical redox reaction, such as rusting or burning,
`the transfer of electrons occurs directly and only heat is involved. As the battery electro-
`chemically converts chemical energy into electric energy, it is not subject, as are combustion
`or heat engines, to the limitations of the Carnot cycle dictated by the second law of ther-
`modynamics. Batteries, therefore, are capable of having higher energy conversion efficien-
`cies.
`While the term ‘‘battery’’ is often used, the basic electrochemical unit being referred to
`is the ‘‘cell.’’ A battery consists of one or more of these cells, connected in series or parallel,
`or both, depending on the desired output voltage and capacity.*
`The cell consists of three major components:
`1. The anode or negative electrode—the reducing or fuel electrode—which gives up elec-
`trons to the external circuit and is oxidized during the electrochemical reaction.
`2. The cathode or positive electrode—the oxidizing electrode—which accepts electrons from
`the external circuit and is reduced during the electrochemical reaction.
`
`*Cell vs. Battery: A cell is the basic electrochemical unit providing a source of electrical
`energy by direct conversion of chemical energy. The cell consists of an assembly of elec-
`trodes, separators, electrolyte, container and terminals. A battery consists of one or more
`electrochemical cells, electrically connected in an appropriate series/parallel arrangement to
`provide the required operating voltage and current levels, including, if any, monitors, controls
`and other ancillary components (e.g. fuses, diodes), case, terminals and markings. (Although
`much less popular, in some publications, the term ‘‘battery’’ is considered to contain two or
`more cells.)
`Popular usage considers the ‘‘battery’’ and not the ‘‘cell’’ to be the product that is sold
`or provided to the ‘‘user.’’ In this 3rd Edition, the term ‘‘cell’’ will be used when describing
`the cell component of the battery and its chemistry. The term ‘‘battery’’ will be used when
`presenting performance characteristics, etc. of the product. Most often, the electr