8/31/23, 11:19 AM
`
`IEEE 802.11 - Wikipedia
`
`IEEE 802.11
`
`IEEE 802.11 is part of the IEEE 802 set of local area network (LAN) technical standards, and
`specifies the set of media access control (MAC) and physical layer (PHY) protocols for implementing
`wireless local area network (WLAN) computer communication. The standard and amendments
`provide the basis for wireless network products using the Wi-Fi brand and are the world's most widely
`used wireless computer networking standards. IEEE 802.11 is used in most home and office networks
`to allow laptops, printers, smartphones, and other devices to communicate with each other and access
`the Internet without connecting wires. IEEE 802.11 is also a basis for vehicle-based communication
`networks with IEEE 802.11p.
`
`The standards are created and maintained by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
`(IEEE) LAN/MAN Standards Committee (IEEE 802). The base version of the standard was released in
`1997 and has had subsequent amendments. While each amendment is officially revoked when it is
`incorporated in the latest version of the standard, the corporate world tends to market to the revisions
`because they concisely denote the capabilities of their products. As a result, in the marketplace, each
`revision tends to become its own standard.
`
`IEEE 802.11 uses various frequencies including, but not limited to, 2.4 GHz, 5 GHz, 6 GHz, and
`60 GHz frequency bands. Although IEEE 802.11 specifications list channels that might be used, the
`radio frequency spectrum availability allowed varies significantly by regulatory domain.
`
`The protocols are typically used in conjunction with IEEE 802.2, and are designed to interwork
`seamlessly with Ethernet, and are very often used to carry Internet Protocol traffic.
`General description
`
`The 802.11 family consists of a series of half-duplex over-the-air modulation techniques that use the
`same basic protocol. The 802.11 protocol family employs carrier-sense multiple access with collision
`avoidance (CSMA/CA) whereby equipment listens to a channel for other users (including non 802.11
`users) before transmitting each frame (some use the term "packet", which may be ambiguous: "frame"
`is more technically correct).
`
`802.11-1997 was the first wireless networking standard in the family, but 802.11b was the first widely
`accepted one, followed by 802.11a, 802.11g, 802.11n, and 802.11ac. Other standards in the family (c–f,
`h, j) are service amendments that are used to extend the current scope of the existing standard, which
`amendments may also include corrections to a previous specification.[1]
`
`This Linksys WRT54GS, a
`combined router and Wi‑Fi access
`point, operates using the 802.11g
`standard in the 2.4 GHz ISM band
`using signalling rates up to
`
`54 Mbit/s.Mbit
`
`For comparison, this Netgear
`product, a combined router and
`Wi‑Fi access point from 2013, uses
`the 802.11ac standard in the 5 GHz
`band, with signalling rates up to
`
`6933 Mbit/s.Mbit
`
`802.11b and 802.11g use the 2.4-GHz ISM band, operating in the United States under Part 15 of the U.S. Federal Communications
`Commission Rules and Regulations. 802.11n can also use that 2.4-GHz band. Because of this choice of frequency band, 802.11b/g/n
`equipment may occasionally suffer interference in the 2.4-GHz band from microwave ovens, cordless telephones, and Bluetooth devices.
`802.11b and 802.11g control their interference and susceptibility to interference by using direct-sequence spread spectrum (DSSS) and
`orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing (OFDM) signaling methods, respectively.
`
`802.11a uses the 5 GHz U-NII band which, for much of the world, offers at least 23 non-overlapping, 20-MHz-wide channels. This is an
`advantage over the 2.4-GHz, ISM-frequency band, which offers only three non-overlapping, 20-MHz-wide channels where other adjacent
`channels overlap (see: list of WLAN channels). Better or worse performance with higher or lower frequencies (channels) may be realized,
`depending on the environment. 802.11n and 802.11ax can use either the 2.4 GHz or 5 GHz band; 802.11ac uses only the 5 GHz band.
`
`The segment of the radio frequency spectrum used by 802.11 varies between countries. In the US, 802.11a and 802.11g devices may be
`operated without a license, as allowed in Part 15 of the FCC Rules and Regulations. Frequencies used by channels one through six of
`802.11b and 802.11g fall within the 2.4 GHz amateur radio band. Licensed amateur radio operators may operate 802.11b/g devices under
`Part 97 of the FCC Rules and Regulations, allowing increased power output but not commercial content or encryption.[2]
`Generations
`
`In 2018, the Wi-Fi Alliance began using a consumer-friendly generation numbering scheme for the publicly used 802.11 protocols. Wi-Fi
`generations 1–6 refer to the 802.11b, 802.11a, 802.11g, 802.11n, 802.11ac, and 802.11ax protocols, in that order.[7][8]
`History
`
`802.11 technology has its origins in a 1985 ruling by the U.S. Federal Communications Commission that released the ISM band[1] for
`unlicensed use.[9]
`https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_802.11
`
`1/19
`
`1
`
`Exhibit 1059
`Samsung v. Smart Mobile
`IPR2022-01249
`
`

`

`IEEE 802.11 - Wikipedia
`8/31/23, 11:19 AM
`In 1991 NCR Corporation/AT&T (now Nokia Labs and LSI Corporation)
`invented a precursor to 802.11 in Nieuwegein, the Netherlands. The
`inventors initially intended to use the technology for cashier systems. The
`first wireless products were brought to the market under the name
`WaveLAN with raw data rates of 1 Mbit/s and 2 Mbit/s.
`
`First
`Approved
`
`Wi-Fi generations
`Maximum
`link rate
`(Mbit/s)
`1376 to 46120
`
`2019-03-21
`
`Radio
`frequency
`(GHz)
`5
`
`6
`
`2.4
`
`IEEE
`standard
`
`802.11be
`
`6[3]
`
`802.11ax
`
`2014-03-27
`
`574 to 9608
`
`802.11ac
`
`2008-09-26
`
`433 to 6933
`
`802.11n
`802.11g
`802.11a
`802.11b
`802.11
`
`2003-09-11
`2000-09-21
`1997-09-16
`1997-12-09
`1991-03-21
`
`72 to 600
`
`6 to 54
`
`1 to 11
`1 to 2
`
`5
`
`5
`
`5
`
`5
`
`2.4
`
`↓[4]
`2.4
`2.4
`
`2.4
`2.4
`
`Vic Hayes, who held the chair of IEEE 802.11 for 10 years, and has been
`called the "father of Wi-Fi", was involved in designing the initial 802.11b
`and 802.11a standards within the IEEE.[10] He, along with Bell Labs
`Engineer Bruce Tuch, approached IEEE to create a standard.[11]
`
`In 1999, the Wi-Fi Alliance was formed as a trade association to hold the
`Wi-Fi trademark under which most products are sold.[12]
`
`Generation
`
` Wi-Fi 7
` Wi-Fi 6/6E
`
` Wi-Fi 5
` Wi-Fi 4
`(Wi-Fi 3)*
`(Wi-Fi 2)*
`(Wi-Fi 1)*
`(Wi-Fi 0)*
`
`*Wi‑Fi 0, 1, 2, and 3 are unbranded common usage.[5][6]
`
`https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_802.11
`
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`
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`IEEE 802.11 - Wikipedia
`8/31/23, 11:19 AM
`The major commercial breakthrough came with Apple's adoption of Wi-Fi for their iBook series of laptops in 1999. It was the first mass
`consumer product to offer Wi-Fi network connectivity, which was then branded by Apple as AirPort.[13][14][15] One year later IBM
`followed with its ThinkPad 1300 series in 2000.[16]
`Protocol
`
`Frequency
`range,
`or type
`
`1–7⅛ GHz
`
`PHY
`
`Protocol
`
`DSSS[19],
`FHSS[A]
`HR/DSSS
`[19]
`
`802.11-
`1997
`
`802.11b
`
`802.11a
`
`802.11j
`
`802.11y
`
`Release
`date [17]
`
`June 1997
`
`September
`1999
`
`September
`1999
`
`November
`2004
`
`November
`2008
`
`Frequency Bandwidth
`
`802.11 network standards
`Stream
`data rate [18] Allowable
`MIMO
`streams
`(Mbit/s)
`
`(GHz)
`
`(MHz)
`
`22
`
`22
`
`1, 2
`
`1, 2, 5.5, 11
`
`—
`
`—
`
`2.4
`
`2.4
`
`5
`
`4.9/5.0
`[B][20]
`
`3.7 [C]
`
`Modulation
`
`DSSS,
`FHSS[A]
`
`CCK, DSSS
`
`[hide]
`Approximate
`range
`Outdoor
`
`Indoor
`
`20 m
`(66 ft)
`
`35 m
`(115 ft)
`
`35 m
`(115 ft)
`
`?
`
`?
`
`100 m
`(330 ft)
`
`140 m
`(460 ft)
`
`120 m
`(390 ft)
`
`?
`
`5,000 m
`(16,000 ft)[C]
`
`1,000 m
`(3,300 ft)[21]
`
`1,000 m
`(3,300 ft)
`
`OFDM
`
`802.11p
`
`July 2010
`
`5.9
`
`5/10/20
`
`6, 9, 12, 18,
`24, 36, 48,
`54
`(for 20 MHz
`bandwidth,
`divide by 2
`and 4 for 10
`and 5 MHz)
`
`—
`
`OFDM
`
`802.11bd
`
`December
`2022
`
`5.9/60
`
`June 2003
`
`2.4
`
`ERP-OFDM
`
`802.11g
`
`HT-OFDM
`[22]
`
`802.11n
`(Wi-Fi 4)
`
`October
`2009
`
`2.4/5
`
`VHT-OFDM
`[22]
`
`802.11ac
`(Wi-Fi 5)
`
`December
`2013
`
`5
`
`HE-OFDMA
`
`802.11ax
`(Wi-Fi 6,
`Wi-Fi 6E)
`
`May 2021
`
`2.4/5/6
`
`200 m (ht
`tps://ieee
`xplore.iee
`e.org/doc
`ument/87
`23326)
`500 m (ht
`tps://ieee
`xplore.iee
`e.org/doc
`ument/87
`23326)
`38 m
`(125 ft)
`
`140 m
`(460 ft)
`
`MIMO-OFDM
`(64-QAM)
`
`70 m
`(230 ft)
`
`250 m
`(820 ft)[23]
`
`DL
`MU-MIMO
`OFDM
`(256-QAM)
`
`35 m
`(115 ft)[24]
`
`?
`
`UL/DL
`MU-MIMO
`OFDMA
`(1024-QAM)
`
`30 m
`(98 ft)
`
`120 m
`(390 ft) [F]
`
`UL/DL
`MU-MIMO
`OFDMA
`(4096-QAM)
`
`30 m
`(98 ft)
`
`120 m
`(390 ft) [F]
`
`OOK (multi-
`carrier OOK)
`
`?
`
`?
`
`3/19
`
`Up to
`288.8[D]
`Up to 600[D]
`Up to 693[D]
`Up to
`1600[D]
`Up to
`3467[D]
`Up to
`6933[D]
`Up to 1147[E]
`Up to
`2294[E]
`Up to
`4804[E]
`Up to
`9608[E]
`Up to
`11.5 Gbit/s[E]
`Up to
`23 Gbit/s[E]
`Up to
`35 Gbit/s[E]
`Up to
`46.1 Gbit/s[E]
`0.0625, 0.25
`(62.5 kbit/s,
`
`4
`
`8
`
`8
`
`16
`
`—
`
`20
`
`40
`
`20
`
`40
`
`80
`
`160
`
`20
`
`40
`
`80
`
`80+80
`
`80
`
`160
`(80+80)
`
`240
`(160+80)
`
`320
`(160+160)
`
`EHT-
`OFDMA
`
`802.11be
`(Wi-Fi 7)
`
`WUR [G]
`
`802.11ba
`
`May 2024
`(est. (http
`s://groupe
`r.ieee.org/
`groups/80
`2/11/Repor
`ts/802.11_
`Timelines.
`htm#tgbe))
`
`October
`2021
`
`https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_802.11
`
`2.4/5/6
`
`2.4/5
`
`4/20
`
`3
`
`

`

`8/31/23, 11:19 AM
`
`Frequency
`range,
`or type
`
`PHY
`
`Protocol
`
`Release
`date [17]
`
`IEEE 802.11 - Wikipedia
`802.11 network standards
`Stream
`data rate [18] Allowable
`MIMO
`streams
`(Mbit/s)
`250 kbit/s)
`
`(GHz)
`
`(MHz)
`
`Frequency Bandwidth
`
`802.11ad
`
`December
`2012
`
`60
`
`2160
`(2.16 GHz)
`
`802.11aj
`
`April 2018
`
`60 [H]
`
`1080[28]
`
`Up to
`8085[26]
`(8 Gbit/s)
`
`Up to 3754
`(3.75 Gbit/s)
`
`—
`
`—
`
`DMG [25]
`
`mmWave
`(WiGig)
`
`Modulation
`
`OFDM[A],
`single carrier,
`low-power
`single carrier[A]
`single carrier,
`low-power
`single carrier[A]
`
`Approximate
`range
`Outdoor
`
`Indoor
`
`3.3 m
`(11 ft)[27]
`
`?
`
`?
`
`?
`
`?
`
`?
`
`CMMG
`
`802.11aj
`
`April 2018
`
`45 [H]
`
`EDMG [31]
`
`802.11ay
`
`July 2021
`
`60
`
`TVHT [33]
`
`802.11af
`
`February
`2014
`
`0.054
`-0.79
`
`540/
`1080
`
`Up to 8640
`(8.64 GHz)
`
`6, 7, 8
`
`4[30]
`
`OFDM,
`single carrier
`
`8
`
`4
`
`OFDM,
`single carrier
`
`10 m
`(33 ft)
`
`100 m
`(328 ft)
`
`?
`
`?
`
`MIMO-OFDM
`
`Up to
`15015[29]
`(15 Gbit/s)
`Up to
`303336[32]
`(303 Gbit/s)
`Up to
`568.9[34]
`Up to
`8.67[35]
`(@2 MHz)
`
`Up to
`9.6 Gbit/s
`
`1, 2
`
`4
`
`—
`
`—
`
`?
`
`?
`
`?
`
`?
`
`?
`
`?
`
`O-OFDM
`
`PPM[A]
`
`800–1000
`nm
`
`850–900
`nm
`
`20
`
`?
`
`802.11 Standard rollups
`
`2.4, 5
`
`2.4, 5
`
`2.4, 5, 60
`
`2.4, 5, 60
`
`Up to 54
`
`DSSS, OFDM
`
`Up to 150[D]
`
`Up to 866.7
`or 6757[D]
`
`Up to 866.7
`or 6757[D]
`
`DSSS, OFDM
`
`DSSS, OFDM
`
`DSSS, OFDM
`
`2.4, 5, 6,
`60
`
`Up to 9608
`or 303336
`
`DSSS, OFDM
`
`Sub 1 GHz
`(IoT)
`
`S1G [33]
`
`802.11ah
`
`May 2017
`
`0.7/0.8
`/0.9
`
`1–16
`
`LC
`(VLC/OWC)
`
`802.11bb
`
`Light
`(Li-Fi)
`
`IR[A]
`(IrDA)
`
`802.11-
`1997
`
`802.11-
`2007
`(802.11ma)
`802.11-
`2012
`(802.11mb)
`802.11-
`2016
`(802.11mc)
`802.11-
`2020
`(802.11md)
`
`802.11me
`
`December
`2023
`(est. (http
`s://groupe
`r.ieee.org/
`groups/80
`2/11/Repor
`ts/tgbb_up
`date.htm))
`
`June 1997
`
`March
`2007
`
`March
`2012
`
`December
`2016
`
`December
`2020
`
`September
`2024
`(est. (http
`s://groupe
`r.ieee.org/
`groups/80
`2/11/Repor
`ts/802.11_
`Timelines.
`htm#tgm
`e))
`
`A. This is obsolete, and support for this might be subject to removal in a future revision of the standard
`B. For Japanese regulation.
`C. IEEE 802.11y-2008 extended operation of 802.11a to the licensed 3.7 GHz band. Increased power limits allow a range up to 5,000 m. As of 2009, it is only
`being licensed in the United States by the FCC.
`D. Based on short guard interval; standard guard interval is ~10% slower. Rates vary widely based on distance, obstructions, and interference.
`E. For single-user cases only, based on default guard interval which is 0.8 micro seconds. Since multi-user via OFDMA has become available for 802.11ax, these
`may decrease. Also, these theoretical values depend on the link distance, whether the link is line-of-sight or not, interferences and the multi-path components in
`the environment.
`
`https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_802.11
`
`4/19
`
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`
`

`

`8/31/23, 11:19 AM
`
`Frequency
`range,
`or type
`
`PHY
`
`Protocol
`
`IEEE 802.11 - Wikipedia
`802.11 network standards
`Stream
`Approximate
`data rate [18] Allowable
`range
`MIMO
`streams
`Outdoor
`Indoor
`(Mbit/s)
`(MHz)
`(GHz)
`F. The default guard interval is 0.8 micro seconds. However, 802.11ax extended the maximum available guard interval to 3.2 micro seconds, in order to support
`Outdoor communications, where the maximum possible propagation delay is larger compared to Indoor environments.
`G. Wake-up Radio (WUR) Operation.
`H. For Chinese regulation.
`
`Release
`date [17]
`
`Frequency Bandwidth
`
`Modulation
`
`802.11-1997 (802.11 legacy)
`
`The original version of the standard IEEE 802.11 was released in 1997 and clarified in 1999, but is now obsolete. It specified two net bit
`rates of 1 or 2 megabits per second (Mbit/s), plus forward error correction code. It specified three alternative physical layer technologies:
`diffuse infrared operating at 1 Mbit/s; frequency-hopping spread spectrum operating at 1 Mbit/s or 2 Mbit/s; and direct-sequence spread
`spectrum operating at 1 Mbit/s or 2 Mbit/s. The latter two radio technologies used microwave transmission over the Industrial Scientific
`Medical frequency band at 2.4 GHz. Some earlier WLAN technologies used lower frequencies, such as the U.S. 900 MHz ISM band.
`
`Legacy 802.11 with direct-sequence spread spectrum was rapidly supplanted and popularized by 802.11b.
`
`802.11a (OFDM waveform)
`
`802.11a, published in 1999, uses the same data link layer protocol and frame format as the original standard, but an OFDM based air
`interface (physical layer) was added.
`
`It operates in the 5 GHz band with a maximum net data rate of 54 Mbit/s, plus error correction code, which yields realistic net achievable
`throughput in the mid-20 Mbit/s.[36] It has seen widespread worldwide implementation, particularly within the corporate workspace.
`
`Since the 2.4 GHz band is heavily used to the point of being crowded, using the relatively unused 5 GHz band gives 802.11a a significant
`advantage. However, this high carrier frequency also brings a disadvantage: the effective overall range of 802.11a is less than that of
`802.11b/g. In theory, 802.11a signals are absorbed more readily by walls and other solid objects in their path due to their smaller
`wavelength, and, as a result, cannot penetrate as far as those of 802.11b. In practice, 802.11b typically has a higher range at low speeds
`(802.11b will reduce speed to 5.5 Mbit/s or even 1 Mbit/s at low signal strengths). 802.11a also suffers from interference,[37] but locally
`there may be fewer signals to interfere with, resulting in less interference and better throughput.
`
`802.11b
`
`The 802.11b standard has a maximum raw data rate of 11 Mbit/s (Megabits per second) and uses the same media access method defined
`in the original standard. 802.11b products appeared on the market in early 2000, since 802.11b is a direct extension of the modulation
`technique defined in the original standard. The dramatic increase in throughput of 802.11b (compared to the original standard) along
`with simultaneous substantial price reductions led to the rapid acceptance of 802.11b as the definitive wireless LAN technology.
`
`Devices using 802.11b experience interference from other products operating in the 2.4 GHz band. Devices operating in the 2.4 GHz
`range include microwave ovens, Bluetooth devices, baby monitors, cordless telephones, and some amateur radio equipment. As
`unlicensed intentional radiators in this ISM band, they must not interfere with and must tolerate interference from primary or secondary
`allocations (users) of this band, such as amateur radio.
`
`802.11g
`
`In June 2003, a third modulation standard was ratified: 802.11g. This works in the 2.4 GHz band (like 802.11b), but uses the same OFDM
`based transmission scheme as 802.11a. It operates at a maximum physical layer bit rate of 54 Mbit/s exclusive of forward error correction
`codes, or about 22 Mbit/s average throughput.[38] 802.11g hardware is fully backward compatible with 802.11b hardware, and therefore is
`encumbered with legacy issues that reduce throughput by ~21% when compared to 802.11a.
`
`The then-proposed 802.11g standard was rapidly adopted in the market starting in January 2003, well before ratification, due to the
`desire for higher data rates as well as reductions in manufacturing costs. By summer 2003, most dual-band 802.11a/b products became
`dual-band/tri-mode, supporting a and b/g in a single mobile adapter card or access point. Details of making b and g work well together
`occupied much of the lingering technical process; in an 802.11g network, however, the activity of an 802.11b participant will reduce the
`data rate of the overall 802.11g network.
`
`https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_802.11
`
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`
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`
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`

`IEEE 802.11 - Wikipedia
`8/31/23, 11:19 AM
`Like 802.11b, 802.11g devices also suffer interference from other products operating in the 2.4 GHz band, for example, wireless
`keyboards.
`
`802.11-2007
`
`In 2003, task group TGma was authorized to "roll up" many of the amendments to the 1999 version of the 802.11 standard. REVma or
`802.11ma, as it was called, created a single document that merged 8 amendments (802.11a, b, d, e, g, h, i, j) with the base standard. Upon
`approval on 8 March 2007, 802.11REVma was renamed to the then-current base standard IEEE 802.11-2007.[39]
`
`802.11n
`
`802.11n is an amendment that improves upon the previous 802.11 standards; its first draft of certification was published in 2006. The
`802.11n standard was retroactively labelled as Wi-Fi 4 by the Wi-Fi Alliance.[40][41] The standard added support for multiple-input
`multiple-output antennas (MIMO). 802.11n operates on both the 2.4 GHz and the 5 GHz bands. Support for 5 GHz bands is optional. Its
`net data rate ranges from 54 Mbit/s to 600 Mbit/s. The IEEE has approved the amendment, and it was published in October 2009.[42][43]
`Prior to the final ratification, enterprises were already migrating to 802.11n networks based on the Wi-Fi Alliance's certification of
`products conforming to a 2007 draft of the 802.11n proposal.
`
`802.11-2012
`
`In May 2007, task group TGmb was authorized to "roll up" many of the amendments to the 2007 version of the 802.11 standard.[44]
`REVmb or 802.11mb, as it was called, created a single document that merged ten amendments (802.11k, r, y, n, w, p, z, v, u, s) with the
`2007 base standard. In addition much cleanup was done, including a reordering of many of the clauses.[45] Upon publication on 29 March
`2012, the new standard was referred to as IEEE 802.11-2012.
`
`802.11ac
`
`IEEE 802.11ac-2013 is an amendment to IEEE 802.11, published in December 2013, that builds on 802.11n.[46] The 802.11ac standard
`was retroactively labelled as Wi-Fi 5 by the Wi-Fi Alliance.[40][41] Changes compared to 802.11n include wider channels (80 or 160 MHz
`versus 40 MHz) in the 5 GHz band, more spatial streams (up to eight versus four), higher-order modulation (up to 256-QAM vs. 64-
`QAM), and the addition of Multi-user MIMO (MU-MIMO). The Wi-Fi Alliance separated the introduction of ac wireless products into two
`phases ("waves"), named "Wave 1" and "Wave 2".[47][48] From mid-2013, the alliance started certifying Wave 1 802.11ac products shipped
`by manufacturers, based on the IEEE 802.11ac Draft 3.0 (the IEEE standard was not finalized until later that year).[49] In 2016 Wi-Fi
`Alliance introduced the Wave 2 certification, to provide higher bandwidth and capacity than Wave 1 products. Wave 2 products include
`additional features like MU-MIMO, 160 MHz channel width support, support for more 5 GHz channels, and four spatial streams (with
`four antennas; compared to three in Wave 1 and 802.11n, and eight in IEEE's 802.11ax specification).[50][51]
`
`802.11ad
`
`IEEE 802.11ad is an amendment that defines a new physical layer for 802.11 networks to operate in the 60 GHz millimeter wave
`spectrum. This frequency band has significantly different propagation characteristics than the 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz bands where Wi-Fi
`networks operate. Products implementing the 802.11ad standard are being brought to market under the WiGig brand name. The
`certification program is now being developed by the Wi-Fi Alliance instead of the now defunct Wireless Gigabit Alliance.[52] The peak
`transmission rate of 802.11ad is 7 Gbit/s.[53]
`
`IEEE 802.11ad is a protocol used for very high data rates (about 8 Gbit/s) and for short range communication (about 1–10 meters).[54]
`
`TP-Link announced the world's first 802.11ad router in January 2016.[55]
`
`The WiGig standard is not too well known, although it was announced in 2009 and added to the IEEE 802.11 family in December 2012.
`
`802.11af
`
`IEEE 802.11af, also referred to as "White-Fi" and "Super Wi-Fi",[56] is an amendment, approved in February 2014, that allows WLAN
`operation in TV white space spectrum in the VHF and UHF bands between 54 and 790 MHz.[57][58] It uses cognitive radio technology to
`transmit on unused TV channels, with the standard taking measures to limit interference for primary users, such as analog TV, digital TV,
`and wireless microphones.[58] Access points and stations determine their position using a satellite positioning system such as GPS, and
`use the Internet to query a geolocation database (GDB) provided by a regional regulatory agency to discover what frequency channels are
`available for use at a given time and position.[58] The physical layer uses OFDM and is based on 802.11ac.[59] The propagation path loss as
`well as the attenuation by materials such as brick and concrete is lower in the UHF and VHF bands than in the 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz bands,
`which increases the possible range.[58] The frequency channels are 6 to 8 MHz wide, depending on the regulatory domain.[58] Up to four
`channels may be bonded in either one or two contiguous blocks.[58] MIMO operation is possible with up to four streams used for either
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`space–time block code (STBC) or multi-user (MU) operation.[58] The achievable data rate per spatial stream is 26.7 Mbit/s for 6 and
`7 MHz channels, and 35.6 Mbit/s for 8 MHz channels.[34] With four spatial streams and four bonded channels, the maximum data rate is
`426.7 Mbit/s for 6 and 7 MHz channels and 568.9 Mbit/s for 8 MHz channels.[34]
`
`802.11-2016
`
`IEEE 802.11-2016 which was known as IEEE 802.11 REVmc,[60] is a revision based on IEEE 802.11-2012, incorporating 5 amendments
`(11ae, 11aa, 11ad, 11ac, 11af). In addition, existing MAC and PHY functions have been enhanced and obsolete features were removed or
`marked for removal. Some clauses and annexes have been renumbered.[61]
`
`802.11ah
`
`IEEE 802.11ah, published in 2017,[62] defines a WLAN system operating at sub-1 GHz license-exempt bands. Due to the favorable
`propagation characteristics of the low frequency spectra, 802.11ah can provide improved transmission range compared with the
`conventional 802.11 WLANs operating in the 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz bands. 802.11ah can be used for various purposes including large scale
`sensor networks,[63] extended range hotspot, and outdoor Wi-Fi for cellular traffic offloading, whereas the available bandwidth is
`relatively narrow. The protocol intends consumption to be competitive with low power Bluetooth, at a much wider range.[64]
`
`802.11ai
`
`IEEE 802.11ai is an amendment to the 802.11 standard that added new mechanisms for a faster initial link setup time.[65]
`
`802.11aj
`
`IEEE 802.11aj is a derivative of 802.11ad for use in the 45 GHz unlicensed spectrum available in some regions of the world (specifically
`China); it also provides additional capabilities for use in the 60 GHz band.[65]
`
`Alternatively known as China Millimeter Wave (CMMW).[66]
`
`802.11aq
`
`IEEE 802.11aq is an amendment to the 802.11 standard that will enable pre-association discovery of services. This extends some of the
`mechanisms in 802.11u that enabled device discovery to discover further the services running on a device, or provided by a network.[65]
`
`802.11-2020
`
`IEEE 802.11-2020, which was known as IEEE 802.11 REVmd,[67] is a revision based on IEEE 802.11-2016 incorporating 5 amendments
`(11ai, 11ah, 11aj, 11ak, 11aq). In addition, existing MAC and PHY functions have been enhanced and obsolete features were removed or
`marked for removal. Some clauses and annexes have been added.[68]
`
`802.11ax
`
`IEEE 802.11ax is the successor to 802.11ac, marketed as Wi-Fi 6 (2.4 GHz and 5 GHz)[69] and Wi-Fi 6E (6 GHz)[70] by the Wi-Fi
`Alliance. It is also known as High Efficiency Wi-Fi, for the overall improvements to Wi-Fi 6 clients under dense environments.[71] For an
`individual client, the maximum improvement in data rate (PHY speed) against the predecessor (802.11ac) is only 39%[a] (for comparison,
`this improvement was nearly 500%[b][i] for the predecessors).[c] Yet, even with this comparatively minor 39% figure, the goal was to
`provide 4 times the throughput-per-area[d] of 802.11ac (hence High Efficiency). The motivation behind this goal was the deployment of
`WLAN in dense environments such as corporate offices, shopping malls and dense residential apartments.[71] This is achieved by means
`of a technique called OFDMA, which is basically multiplexing in the frequency domain (as opposed to spatial multiplexing, as in
`802.11ac). This is equivalent to cellular technology applied into Wi-Fi.[71]: qt
`
`The IEEE 802.11ax‑2021 standard was approved on February 9, 2021.[74][75]
`
`802.11ay
`
`IEEE 802.11ay is a standard that is being developed, also called EDMG: Enhanced Directional MultiGigabit PHY. It is an amendment that
`defines a new physical layer for 802.11 networks to operate in the 60 GHz millimeter wave spectrum. It will be an extension of the existing
`11ad, aimed to extend the throughput, range, and use-cases. The main use-cases include indoor operation and short-range
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`communications due to atmospheric oxygen absorption and inability to penetrate walls. The peak transmission rate of 802.11ay is
`40 Gbit/s.[76] The main extensions include: channel bonding (2, 3 and 4), MIMO (up to 4 streams) and higher modulation schemes. The
`expected range is 300-500 m.[77]
`
`802.11ba
`
`IEEE 802.11ba Wake-up Radio (WUR) Operation is an amendment to the IEEE 802.11 standard that enables energy efficient operation
`for data reception without increasing latency.[78] The target active power consumption to receive a WUR packet is less than 1 milliwatt
`and supports data rates of 62.5 kbit/s and 250 kbit/s. The WUR PHY uses MC-OOK (multicarrier OOK) to achieve extremely low power
`consumption.[79]
`
`802.11bb
`
`IEEE 802.11bb is a networking protocol standard in the IEEE 802.11 set of protocols that uses infrared light for communications.[80]
`
`802.11be
`
`IEEE 802.11be Extremely High Throughput (EHT) is the potential next amendment to the 802.11 IEEE standard,[81] and will likely be
`designated as Wi-Fi 7.[82][83] It will build upon 802.11ax, focusing on WLAN indoor and outdoor operation with stationary and
`pedestrian speeds in the 2.4 GHz, 5 GHz, and 6 GHz frequency bands.
`Common misunderstandings about achievable throughput
`
`Across all variations of 802.11, maximum achievable throughputs are given either
`based on measurements under ideal conditions or in the layer-2 data rates. However,
`this does not apply to typical deployments in which data is being transferred between
`two endpoints, of which at least one is typically connected to a wired infrastructure and
`the other endpoint is connected to an infrastructure via a wireless link.
`
`This means that, typically, data frames pass an 802.11 (WLAN) medium and are being
`converted to 802.3 (Ethernet) or vice versa. Due to the difference in the frame (header)
`lengths of these two media, the application's packet size determines the speed of the
`data transfer. This means applications that use small packets (e.g., VoIP) create
`dataflows with high-overhead traffic (i.e., a low goodput). Other factors that contribute
`to the overall application data rate are the speed with which the application transmits
`the packets (i.e., the data rate) and, of course, the energy with which the wireless signal
`is received. The latter is determined by distance and by the configured output power of
`the communicating devices.[84][85]
`
`The same references apply to the attached graphs that show measurements of UDP
`throughput. Each represents an average (UDP) throughput (please note that the error
`bars are there but barely visible due to the small variation) of 25 measurements. Each
`is with a specific packet size (small or large) and with a specific data rate (10 kbit/s –
`100 Mbit/s). Markers for traffic profiles of common applications are included as well.
`These figures assume there are no packet errors, which, if occurring, will lower the
`transmission rate further.
`Channels and frequencies
`
`802.11b, 802.11g, and 802.11n-2.4 utilize the 2.400–2.500 GHz spectrum, one of the
`ISM bands. 802.11a, 802.11n, and 802.11ac use the more heavily regulated
`4.915–5.825 GHz band. These are commonly referred to as the "2.4 GHz and 5 GHz
`bands" in most sales literature. Each spectrum is sub-divided into channels with a
`center frequency and bandwidth, analogous to how radio and TV broadcast bands are
`sub-divided.
`
`Graphical representation of Wi-Fi application specific
`(UDP) performance envelope 2.4 GHz band, with
`802.11g. 1 Mbps = 1 Mbit/sMbit
`
`Graphical representation of Wi-Fi application specific
`(UDP) performance envelope 2.4 GHz band, with
`802.11n with 40MHz
`
`The 2.4 GHz band is divided into 14 channels spaced 5 MHz apart, beginning with channel 1, which is centered on 2.412 GHz. The latter
`channels have additional restrictions or are unavailable for use in some regulatory domains.
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`
`Graphical representation of Wi-Fi channels in the 2.4 GHz band
`
`The channel numbering of the 5.725–5.875 GHz spectrum is less intuitive due to the differences in regulations between countries. These
`are discussed in greater detail on the list of WLAN channels.
`
`Channel spacing within the 2.4 GHz band
`
`In addition to specifying the channel center frequency, 802.11 also specifies (in Clause 17) a spectral mask defining the permitted power
`distribution across each channel. The mask requires the signal to be attenuated a minimum of 20 dB from its peak amplitude at ±11 MHz
`from the center frequency, the point at which a channel is effectively 22 MHz wide. One consequence is that stations can use only every
`fourth or fifth channel without overlap.
`
`Availability of channels is regulated by country, constrained in part by how each country allocates radio spectrum to various services. At
`one extreme, Japan permits the use of all 14 channels for 802.11b, and 1–13 for 802.11g/n-2.4. Other countries such as Spain initially
`allowed only channels 10 and 11, and France allowed only 10, 11, 12, and 13; however, Europe now allow channels 1 through 13.[86][87]
`North America and some Central and South American countries allow only 1 through 11.
`
`Spectral masks for 802.11g channels 1–14 in the 2.4 GHz band
`
`Since the spectral mask defines only power output restrictions up to ±11 MHz from the center frequency to be attenuated by −50 dBr, it is
`often assumed that the energy of the channel extends no further than these limits. It is more correct to say that the overlapping signal on
`any channel should be sufficiently attenuated to interfere with a transmitter on any other channel minimally, given the separation
`between channels. Due to the near–far problem a transmitter can impact (desensitize) a receiver on a "non-overlapping" channel, but
`only if it is close to the victim receiver (within a meter) or operating above allowed power levels. Conversely, a sufficiently distant
`transmitter on an overlapping channel can have little to no significant effect.
`
`Confusion often arises over the amount of channel separation required between transmitting devices. 802.11b was based on direct-
`sequence spread spectrum (DSSS) modulation and utilized a channel bandwidth of 22 MHz, resulting in three "non-overlapping"
`channels (1, 6, and 11). 802.11g was based on OFDM modulation and utilized a channel bandwidth of 20 MHz. This occasionally leads to
`the belief that four "non-overlapping" channels (1, 5, 9, and 13) exist under 802.11g. However, this is not the case as per 17.4.6.3 Channel
`Numbering of operating channels of the IEEE Std 802.11 (2012), which states, "In a multiple cell network topology, overlapping and/or
`adjacent cells using different channels can operate simultaneously without interference if the distance between the center frequencies is at
`least 25 MHz."[88] and section 18.3.9.3 and Figure 18-13.
`
`This does not mean that the technical overlap of the channels recommends the non-use of overlapping channels. The amount of inter-
`channel interference seen on a configuration using channels 1, 5, 9, and 13 (which is permitted in Europe, but not in North America) is
`barely different from a three-channel configuration, but wi