Advances
`in
`SRingerprint
`Technology
`EDITION
`
`SECOND
`
`16
`
`8
`
`ED B Y
`EDI
`Henry C. Lee and R. E. Gaensslen
`
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`Library ofCongress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
`
`technology / edited by Henry C. Lee, R.E. Gaensslen.--2nd ed.
`Advances in fingerprint
`p. cm -- (CRC series in forensic and police science)
`Includes bibliographical
`references and index.
`ISBN 0-8493-0923-9 (alk. paper)
`1. Fingerprints. 2. Fingerprints--Data
`(Robert E.) II. Series.
`
`processing.
`
`I. Lee, Henry C.
`
`II. Gaensslen, R. E.
`
`HV6074 .A43 2001
`363.258--dc21
`
`2001025816
`
`This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reprinted material
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`International Standard Book Number 0-8493-0923-9
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`
`890
`
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`Table of Contents
`
`Preface
`Acknowledgments
`The Editors
`Contributors
`
`1
`
`2
`
`3
`
`4
`
`5
`
`6
`
`History and Development
`of Fingerprinting
`John Berry and David A. Stoney
`
`Identification of Latent Prints
`Robert D. Olsen, Sr. and Henry C. Lee
`
`Composition of Latent Print Residue
`Robert S. Ramotowski
`
`Methods of Latent Fingerprint Development
`Henry C. Lee and R.E. Gaensslen
`
`Fingerprint Development by Ninhydrin
`and Its Analogues
`Joseph Almog
`
`Fingerprint Detection with
`Photoluminescent Nanoparticles
`E. Roland Menzel
`
`xi
`
`1
`
`41
`
`63
`
`105
`
`177
`
`211
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`xii
`7
`
`8
`
`9
`
`10
`
`Index
`
`Advances in Fingerprint Technology, SecondEdition
`
`Silver Physical Development
`of Latent Prints
`Antonio Cantu and James L. Johnson
`
`Automated Fingerprint Identification
`and Imaging Systems
`Anil Jain and Sharath Pankanti
`
`Measurement of Fingerprint
`David A. Stoney
`
`Individuality
`
`The Expert Fingerprint Witness
`Robert J. Hazen and Clarence E. Phillips
`
`241
`
`275
`
`327
`
`389
`
`419
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`2
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`Advances in Fingerprint Technology, SecondEdition
`
`RIDGE CHARACTERISTICS
`
`RIDGE ENDING
`
`BIFURCATION
`
`LAKE
`INDEPENDENT
`RIDGE
`DOT or ISLAND
`
`SPUR
`
`CROSSOVER
`
`Figure 1.1 Ridge characteristics.
`
`(Drawn by John Berry.)
`
`Introduction
`The fascinating story of the development and use of fingerprints in the last
`hundred years will only be properly appreciated if the reader is acquainted
`with some knowledge of dactyloscopy;
`therefore I will briefly outline the
`basic details of this science. The inside surfaces of the hands from fingertips
`to wrist and the bottom surfaces of the feet from the tip of the big toe tothe
`rear of the heel contain minute ridges of skin, with furrows betweeneach
`ridge. A cross section of a finger would look exactly like the cross section of
`a plowed field. Whereas on a plowed field the ridges and furrows run in
`straight parallel lines, on the hands and feet the ridges and furrows frequently
`curve and, especially on the fingertips and toe ends, the ridges and furrows
`form complicated patterns. The ridges have pores along their entire length
`exude perspiration; hence, when an article is picked up, the perspiration
`runs along the ridges and leaves an exact
`impression of the ridges, just asan
`inked rubber stamp leaves its impression on a blank sheet of paper.
`Ridges and furrows have evolved on the hands and feet to fulfill
`specific functions:
`
`three
`
`1. Exudation of perspiration
`2. Tactile facility
`3. Provision of a gripping surface
`
`characteristics, as shown in
`form seven basic
`The ridges and furrows
`Figure 1.1. Some authorities consider that only two types of characteristics
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`History and Development of Fingerprinting
`
`BASIC FINGERPRINT PATTERNS
`
`ARCH
`
`TENT
`
`LOOP
`
`WHORL
`
`Figure 1.2 Basic fingerprint paterns.
`
`are present, a ridge ending and a bifurcation, all other characteristics being
`variations of the two basic forms. I consider that my illustration defines the
`most
`important varieties of ridge detail, also known as ridge characteristics.
`The ridges and furrows form patterns on the last joint of the fingers and
`toes,
`forming four basic types, as shown in Figure 1.2. There are variations
`of these patterns, especially with whorls, but these are the province of the
`fingerprint expert. Every person in the world shares these patterns – a
`person can have all of one type or even a mixture of all of them. The everyday
`use of fingers as an identification method and the production of finger and
`palm evidence in courts of law are based on one magnificent premise: no
`one has ever been found who has a sequence of ridge detail on the hands
`and feet that is identical
`to the ridge detail of any other person.
`
`Evolution and the Elliptical Whorl (1976)
`Before I researched the history of fingerprints in 1975, the earliest evidence
`of ridge detail on the hands and feet of humans was seen in the 4000-year-
`old mummies of ancient Egypt. The hands and feet of mummies have been
`examined on numerous occasions, and I can confirm the presence of ridge
`detail on the mummies' digits. Before 1975, the only other evidence reported
`was thepresence of a small portion of palm imprint on hardened mud found
`in Egypt on a paleolithic site at the Sebekian deposit, Kom Ombo plain, on
`the east bank of the river Nile, dated around 10,000 years ago. The fact that
`primates have ridge detail was announced for the first
`time, as far as I can
`discover, by Joannes Evangelista Purkinje in his thesis (discussed later) pub-
`lished on December 22, 1823. He wrote:
`
`In the hands of the monkeys, as well as in their prehensile tails, similar lines
`occur, the distinction of which adds to the knowledge of the characteristics
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`4
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`Advances in Fingerprint Technology, Second Edition
`
`of all species. Zoologists, unless they consider them unimportant, will add
`further details.
`
`Purkinje illustrated a palm imnpression and a small portion of the prehensile
`tail of a spider monkey.
`In 1975-1976, I and my colleagues in the Fingerprint Office in Hertford-
`shire, U.K.– Roger Bal, David Brooker, Nicholas Hall, StephenHaylock,
`and Martin Leadbetter – commencedprotractedresearchto confirm that
`all species of primates have ridge detail on their hands and feet in patterns
`and toe ends that conform to human patterns (see Figure 1.2). We prepared
`a list of over 180species of primates from the tree shrews (family Tupaiidae)
`to the gorilla (family Pongidae) and prepared a roster whereby,
`in small
`groups, we visited zoos and private collections, examining and in manycases
`taking impressions of the hands and feet of primates. This researchengen-
`dered publicity in the press and television; one sarcastic writer commented
`in a national newspaper that Stephen Haylock was fingerprinting monks.
`Eventually, Leadbetter and I contacted Professor and Mrs. Napier, who
`have now retired to a Scottish island. Professor Napier was a professional
`writer and a world-renowned
`expert on the hand; his wife Prue was also a
`writer and worked in the British Natural History Museum on CromwellRoad,
`London. We discovered that her terms of reference covered a section of the
`museum denied to ordinary visitors where thousands of deceasedprimates,
`many of them stuffed with straw, were placed in wide receptacles in an air-
`conditioned hall. Mrs. Napier explained that a "rule" existed whereby when
`a primate died in England, the skin was sent to the museum. This rule" has
`been in existence for many years. For example, Roger Ball and I used a
`fingerprint-lifting technique to obtain the entire length of ridge detail from
`the prehensile tail of a red howler monkey that had died in 1829. Figure 1.3
`shows an enlarged section of the lift.
`The museum authorities gave permission for Roger Ball, Stephen Hay-
`lock, Martin Leadbetter, and me to examine all the stuffed primates in the
`huge collection. Working in pairs and using our vacation days, we eventually
`examined the hand and foot surfaces of all the primates.
`In a few instances
`we lifted ridge details from the hands and feet of selected specimens. This
`was done by carefully smoothing several
`layers of acrylic paint over the
`surfaces and waiting for each layer to dry before peeling it off. When we
`returned to the Fingerprint Office in Hertfordshire,
`the acrylic lifts were
`dusted with aluminum powder and then lifted with transparent
`tape and
`placed on transparent Cobex,
`forming a negative duly processed in the
`Camtac machine, producing a positive impression, i.e., ridges were black and
`furrows and pores were white. After 18 months of research, we had become
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`History and Development of Fingerprinting
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`5
`
`Figure 1.3 Portion of the prehensile tail of a red howler monkey (1829).
`
`the first researchers, as far as I can ascertain, to examine and record the hands,
`feet, and prehensile tails of every species of primate.
`In a later section, I shall discuss the fingerprint pioneer Dr. Henry Faulds
`(pronounced "folds")
`in some detail; but in the present context I believe it
`is enormously interesting to report that on February 15, 1880, Faulds wrote
`to evolutionist Charles Darwin requesting his aid in obtaining the finger
`impressions of
`lemurs, anthropoids, etc. "with a view to throw light on
`human ancestry: On April 7, 1880, Darwin replied to Faulds:
`Dear Sir,
`The subject to which you refer in your letter of February 15th seems to
`me a curious one, which may turn out
`interesting, but
`I am sorry to say
`that I am most unfortunately situated for offering you any assistance. I live
`in the country, and from weak health seldom see anyone. I wil, however,
`forward your
`letter to Mr. F. Galton, who is the man most
`likely that
`I can
`think of to take up the subject and make further enquiries.
`Wishing yousuccess,
`I
`remain, dear Sir,
`Yours faithfully,
`Charles Darwin
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`6
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`Advances in Fingerprint Technology, SecondEdition
`
`The "Mr. F. Galton" referred to in the letter from Darwin in duecourse
`became an authority on
`fingerprint matters in England and was part ofan
`establishment clique that sought
`to revile Faulds (to be describedlater).
`However, note the amazing chain of events: ... fingerprint pioneerFaulds..
`primates' fingerprints ... Charles Darwin ... Mr. F. Galton (later SirFrancis
`Galton) .. fingerprintpioneer!
`fully occupied in mywork
`During the summer of 1976, I was, as always,
`as a fingerprint
`expert
`in Hertfordshire,
`specializing in searching for the
`ownership of finger
`imprints
`found at crime scenes, known in theU.S.by
`the particularly apt expression "cold searching." Many identifications are
`made as the direct
`result of suspects being named by investigatingpolice
`officers, but it is thrilling for a fingerprint expert, even a grizzled veteranlike
`myself working with fingerprints for 37 years, to delve into the unknownand
`give the police a named person for the crime they are investigating, aname
`completely fresh and unknown to them, which we refer to as being "out of
`the blue." Some astute detectives, when given the name as the result of a
`successful search, attempt
`to give the impression that somehow "they hadan
`idea" that the name supplied to them was at that
`time under seriousreview.
`Fingerprint experts do not
`like this because the identification mighthave
`been made after
`laboriously searching perhaps thousands of fingerprint
`forms.
`So in 1976 my position was that I had been scanning hundreds,possibly
`thousands, of fingerprints every working day for almost 22 years and atthe
`back of my mind was the ever-present thought that all primates have"human
`type fingerimpressions
`and, prompted
`after all, we are all prinmates
`thoughts occurred tome.
`by the letter from Faulds to Darwin, some original
`I had recently read Prue Napier's book Monkeys and Apes, whereinshe
`illustrated every primate, describing the physical similarities anddifferences
`that occur
`in geographically
`separate areas, such as South America (only
`South American primates have ridge detail on their prehensile tail strip),
`Japan, Africa, Sumatra, Gibraltar,
`India, and Madagascar.
`I perusedbooks
`on plate tectonics, averaging the estimated dates of the separation ofMada-
`gascar
`from the East African coast, and calculated that
`this occurred
`50,000,000 years ago. Madagascan primates,
`I mused, differ physically from
`African primates, but they also bore ridge detail on their hands andfeet.One
`fingerprint pattern that
`frequently occurs on primates in allgeographical
`areas is the elliptical whorl
`(Figure 1.4), which is also found on humanfinger
`impressions. I must stress that arches, tents,
`loops, and whorls (seeFigure1.2)
`are also found on primates, but
`I
`latched
`onto"
`the elliptical whorl asthe
`basis for my sudden inspiration. Surely,
`if East African andMadagascan
`primates have elliptical whorls (among other patterns), only twotheories
`could account for this phenomenon:
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`History and Development of Fingerprinting
`
`7
`
`H
`
`Figure 1.4 Elliptical whorl.
`
`of certain land masses between
`Theory 1: Before the distribution
`50,000,000 and 100,000,000 years ago, ridge detail was present on the
`hands and feet of our subprimate ancestors.
`Theory 2: At some undetermined moment in time, perhaps allied with
`the emergence of Homo sapiens, primates all over the world suddenly
`developed ridge detail on their hand and foot surfaces, all species
`having associated patterns.
`I submit that Theory 2 does not even require the remotest consideration,
`unless one is prepared to put
`forward a subtheory of Divine Intervention;
`but even then, cynically, why would God suddenly decide to gratuitously
`hand out
`ridge detail? I
`forwarded details of Theory 1 to Professor Napier
`and to Professor Beigert, Zurich, Switzerland,
`for their consideration.
`I met
`with ProfessorNapier, who kindly presentedcopies of his relevant publications.
`In Monkeys Without Tails, Professor Napier considers that the develop-
`ment of tree climbers like Smilodectes required, among other physical devel-
`opments, "replacement of sharp claws by flattened nails associated with the
`development of sensitive pads on the tips of the digits." He wrote to me:
`
`if
`fingerprints are as old as you suggest, particularly
`I am quite sure that
`the evolution of the monkeys is put back to the Eocene. The chances of
`evolving the "human' primate pattern are very high by means of the simple
`process of evolutionary convergence which your thesis strongly suggests ...
`it is obviously a basic pattern of Nature.
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`8
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`Advances in Fingerprint Technology, SecondEditios
`
`For many years Professor Beigert has published numerous books con-
`cerning ridge detail on the hand and foot surfaces of selectedprimates.He
`also forwarded to me copies of his literature and wrote, making thefollowing
`observations:
`
`I agree with you that dermatoglyphics on palma and planta of primates
`have to be dated very early. In my opinion in the Paleocene, 50,000,000-
`60,000,000 years ago.
`
`In his book The Evaluation of the Skull, Hands and Feet for Primate
`Taxonomy (1963), Professor Beigert writes:
`
`that among the other sense
`Much less attention has been given to the fact
`organs, the touch receptors underwent a significantly higher development.
`
`My thesis was published in Fingerprint Whorld (July 1976) and in my
`esoteric annual publication Ridge Detail in Nature (1979); bothpublications
`were circulated to fingerprint bureaus, universities, and museums all over
`the world. No one has claimed prior publication of my theory regardingthe
`fact that subprimates bore ridge detail before the separation of landmasses.
`I
`therefore submit
`that
`ridge detail appeared on the hands and feet of
`our subprimate ancestors over 100,000,000 years ago (a new 1987estimate
`for the separation of Madagascar from Africa is closer to 200,000,000years)
`and that our subprimate ancestors developed ridge detail on their handsand
`feet to facilitate the evolutionary requirement
`for grip,
`tactile facility, andthe
`exudation of perspiration.
`
`Neolithic Bricks (7000 B.C.)
`Dame Kathleen Kenyon carried out excavations in the ancient city ofJericho,
`and in her book Archaeology of the Holy Land,
`referring to housesdated
`between 7000 B.C. and 6000 B.C., she reported
`
`The bricks of which the walls were constructed were made by hand (not in
`moulds, as is usual
`later),
`in shape rather
`like a flattened cigar, with the
`surfaceimpressed with a herringbone pattern by pairs of prints of the brick-
`layer's thumbs,
`thus giving a keying such as is provided by the hollow in
`modern bricks.
`
`In Paphos -History and Archaeology by F. G. Maier and V.Karageorghs,
`dealing with excavations in Paphos, birthplace of Aphrodite, reference
`made to the walls of the ancient city, eighth century B.C.
`
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`Forensics and Criminal Justice
`
`Advances
`inFingerprint
`Technology
`SEC0 ND EDITION
`EDITED BY
`Henry C. Lee and R. E. Gaensslen
`
`Fingerprints constitute one of the most important categories of physical
`evidence, and one of the few in which true individualization is possible.
`During the last two decades, many new and exciting developments
`have taken place in the field of fingerprint science, particularly in the
`realm of methods for developing latent prints and in the growth of
`imaging and AFIS technologies. This fully updated Second Edition of
`the bestseller, Advances in Fingerprint Technology, covers major
`developments in latent fingerprint processing, including physical,
`chemical,
`instrumental, and combination techniques. Written by a
`renowned group of leading forensic identification and criminalistics
`experts, this valuable work presents exciting progress in fingerprint
`technologies, and in fingerprint comparison and identification.
`
`CRC Press
`(CRC) Taylor &. Francis Group
`an informa businesS
`www.crcpress.com
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`Advances in Fingerprint Tec.c and Police ScienceSeries)
`Used- Good
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