ED 337 705
`
`AUTHOR
`TITLE
`
`INSTITUTION
`PUB DATE
`NOTE
`PUB TYPE
`
`EDRS PRICE
`DESCRIPTORS
`
`DOCUMENT RESUME
`
`CE 059 486
`
`Miller, Aaron J., Ed.
`Applications of Computer Conferencing to Teacher
`Education and Human Resource Development. Proceedings
`from an International Symposium on Computer
`Conferencing (Columbus, Ohio, June 13-15, 1991).
`Ohio State Univ., Columbus. Coll. of Education.
`91
`82p.
`Collected Works - Conference Proceedings (021)
`
`MFO1/PCO04 Plus Postage.
`Adult Education; Computer Assisted Instruction;
`Computer Networks; Computer Software; *Computer Uses
`in Education; Distance Education; Educational
`Research; Educational Technology; Higher Education;
`sLabor Force Development; *Online Systems;
`Postsecondary Education; Research Methodology; Rural
`Education; «Staff Development; *Teacher Education;
`aTeleconferencing
`
`ABSTRACT
`
`This document contains the texts of seven invited
`presentations and six juried papers from a symposium on the uses of
`computer conferencing in teacher education and human resource
`development. The invited presentations include the following:
`"Computer Conferencing in the Context of Theory and Practice of
`Distance Education" (Michael G. Moore); "An Introduction to Computer
`Conferencing: A Look at Software Available in the Academic World”
`{Alex Cruz); "Delivering Credit Courses by Computer and Other
`Observations" (Donald R. KeNeil); "The Fully Electronic University,
`or, Mind Expansion without Drugs” (Edward B. Yarrish): “Teaching by
`Computer Conferencing” (Linda Harasim); "Guidelines for Conducting
`Instructional Discussions on a Computer Conference” (Mark E. Eisley);
`and "Developing a Learning Community in Distance Education" (Robin
`Mason). Juried papers are as follows: "Extending the RJ-11 Connection
`for Audio and Computer Conferencing" (Larry Hudson, Robert Paugh, and
`Phyllis Olmstead); "Telecommunications Networks in Action: An
`Inter-University Project" (Constance Poilard, and Valerie Akeyo);
`"Electronic Mail, Conferencing, and Student Teaching” (Paul E. Post);
`“AR Focus Group Report on Religious On-Line Education" (James T.
`Roberson, Jr.); "Research and Development Activities Regarding
`Opportunities and Problems with Computer Conferencing for Rural
`America" (Ronald M. Stammen); and "Examini:j Computer Conferencing as
`a Technique for Enhancing Personnel Development Activities” (Robert
`M. Torres et al.). The first appendix lists the affiliations of the
`principal speakers and presenters of juried papers;
`the second
`appendix provides names, addresses, and electronic mail listings for
`conference participants.
`(KC)
`
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`Applications of Computer Conferencing
`To Teacher Education and
`Human Resource Development
`
`Proceedings from an International Symposium
`on Computer Conferencing
`at
`The Ohio State University
`Columbus, Ohio
`June 13-15, 1991
`
`PERMISSION TO REPRODUCE THIS
`oneeaetO MATERIAL HAS BEEN GRANTED BY
`“ES INFORMATION
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`Applications of Computer Conferencing
`To Teacher Education and
`Human Resource Development
`
`Edited by:
`Aaron J. Miller
`1991
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`Copyright © 1991
`
`The Ohio State University
`College of Education
`Columbus, Ohio
`
`All Rights Reserved
`
`__
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`Preface
`
`The 1991 Ohio State Uriversity “Computer Conferencing
`Conference” was permeated with both substance andan innovative
`spirit. Proceedings volumes typically capture the substance of
`meetings but rarely do they capture the spirit. This volume does
`capture a bit of the spirit—a spirit that kept the attendance at the
`samelevel at Saturday noonas at the opening session on Thursday
`morning.
`
`Much educational effort around the world is in one way or
`another an effort to understand the world,
`its people, and its
`phenomena. Acommonthemethat runs through manyof the papers
`in this Proceedings is the potential for firsthand information and
`immediacy in communication. The impact on education is just
`beginning to be felt. Even Jules Verne would not have envisioned
`going around the world in 80 seconds. Today’s student doing a
`geographyproject on Japan can logon andget his or her questions
`answered by someonein Japan.
`
`The authors here have envisioned better education through
`computer conferencing. They have described their experiences in
`distance education, the supervision of student teachers, electronic
`focus groups, and many varied forms of interactive electronic
`education. Impressively, they have related their experiences to our
`existing learning theory and other relevant databases. In so doing,
`they make a major contribution to the creation of a database on
`interactive electronic education.
`
`Gilbert A. Jarvis
`The Ohio State University
`
`ne.
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`Acknowledgements
`
`The process of education and human resource development has
`changed radically during the past 15 years. One major factor
`contributing to this changeis the use of the computer and computer
`dedicated communications. The International Symposium on
`Applications of Computer Conferencing To Teacher Education and
`Human Resource Developmentprovided a forum for examining the
`latest practices and issues related to the use of comp’ ter mediated
`communications, and specifically computer co'iferencing,
`to
`education andtraining.
`
`Sincere appreciation is expressed to the Department of Educational
`Studies and the College of Education for financially supporting this
`symposium. Also, our special gratitude and recognition is given to
`the Academic Computing Services, and The Center on Education
`and Training For Employment for their support in planning anc
`providing special technical expertise and professionalstaff time in
`the conductof the symposium.
`
`Aaron J. Miller
`Symposium Coordinator
`
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`Table of Contents
`
`PARR csc cpdSicinacacedcisndsptaviuicstouOvsunnecb avoaveusdaovedsanesvetedécotieniginqramiseeasagooaaanzeizasnasrapetrnedsqentiessitd ii
`
`Acknowledgements .......cccccseeserercnestecerenscssesesessnsseseessnnscesanscaesnsanasansesnanssnseuentersanescaenatansnnsyn v
`
`invited Presentations:
`
`Computer Conferencing in the Context of Theory and
`Practice of Distance Education
`Micha! Gi. MOOT .icccccscececceacnsccsersnssescecssoisvsacbecsassayesesseceteascessnensensenaensacenresesasieneuseanserecsusas 1
`
`An Introduction to Computer Conferencing: A Look At
`Software Available In The Academic World
`PANO PRE occvciicacsenconenssrovcnecesneneranaspeinnsiveveanvsbereseteunpeueisathestbaapiseasepdantceaGsesLbenterchsaeyiarounbasxce 11
`
`Delivering Credit Courses By Computer and Other Observations
`Dornald RR. MONI ....cc:.scccesccesessevensssssessaciescsnssccunsressanatecsounescrsonstanessesenennsrusspeacssonorse senses? 15
`
`The Fully Electronic University; Or, Mind Expansion
`Without Drugs
`Eqhward B. Yarrish .........:.cccscccsecccessenseccseeeseenseeassenseeseatneneseseacneasseseransaeneactacmesanesersanaeseraeas 19
`
`Teaching By Computer Conierencing
`Lina HAraSim ......:c2ccccesceeesssceeseseteseeeessaasecssensneeneceveneesnssaisgnvaseessrnbaccnsensseneneneesannanaasenenaes 25
`
`Guidelines For Conducting Instructional Discussions On A
`:
`Computer Conference
`Mark E. Eisley ...........cccscessssescsserseesseesescnersnnsseenseesasanensnseussarsenanecsnauseaensnsarennsrensnnetansasaeaa ets35
`
`Developing A Leaming Community In Distance Education
`RODIN MASON .4.0::ccsccccscersecessvscsssssctessnsssacsonsssncnsorsscrsssaranseeseorsreesasensanisaceaenirniaanasenenseeasesonnes 41
`
`Referred Papers:
`
`Extending The RJ-11 Connection For Audio and
`Computer Conferencing
`Larry Hudson, Robert Paugh. and Phyllis Olmstead .........::.csecrsrersersseseneersesncstaneanesenens 47
`
`Telecommunications Networks in Action: An Inter-university
`Project
`Constance Pollard and Valerie AK@YO ......0:::cccccsecessesssstereenenseressecnenesessensartenansistarennesenet OD
`
`Electronic Mail, Conferencing, and Student Teaching
`Paul E. POSt.....-c:csccceccesseecscsssssssessctersscceacsenestseesentsstencsteaecenectseransessennasenenenenetenneeraneasndeneees 57
`A Focus Group Report On Reise SOn-Line UNO.
`James T. Roberson, Jr..
`gai
`
`oilésdanipocesWeseisednCAasebeudsqusdeatcyspeaebaajeln ee
`
`Research and DevelopmentActivities Regarding Opportunities
`and Problems With Computer Conferencing For Rural America
`Ronald M. Stammen ........:0cccccccssesseecserecnssscesessenestsersersersesrsnsssarrsrssersesestesesteavenneteaenseeceen65
`
`‘may
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`Examining Computer Conferencing As A Technique For
`Enhancing Personne! Development Activities
`Robert M. Torres, Wesley E. Budke, Charles M. Loyd,
`N. L. McCaslin, and Aaron J. Miller ............:c.cccceececeeeececcesnunesseserscneeeneceenstantarsarnansenseseees 69
`
`Appendix A
`About the SP@BKOIS ....-:scccscccsccscesssssacenensanentesnasacengedsinarssseedpadsccuepsannssnasenucaepeisanesanennesesavneneoasaaes 77
`
`Appendix B
`SyMposivM ParticipantS .........csercrecesssovsonscssnscvsecseeseseasaccsnsrecsscscesraresrsusueraeapevoreccanenrendaceanestass 79
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`Computer Conferencing
`In The Context Of Theory and Practice
`Of Distance Education
`
`by
`Michael Grahame Moore
`
`self-study packages for use by highly independent
`students. More often courses are taught through two or
`more media, such as study guide with correspondence;
`study guide, audio-tape and correspondence;telecon-
`ference and study guide; television broadcast, study
`guide and face-to-face class. In theory there should be,
`(and often is in some overseas Open Uri ‘ersities) full
`integration ofall such media: study guice, broadcast-
`ing, recordings, correspondence,fare-to-tuce classes,
`computer-accessed data and interactions, teleconfer-
`ences, and even kits of electronics or chemicals for
`experimentation in the student's home.
`
`1. Introduction/background
`The first attempt in English to define distance educa-
`tion and to articulate a theory of this form of education
`appeared in an article called “Toward a theory of Inde-
`pendent Leaming and Teaching” published in TheJour-
`nal of Higher Education in 1973 (Moore, 1973). This
`theory, sometimes called the two-dimensional theory
`was an attempt to idontify the “macrofactors” of dis-
`tance education,i.e. the basic variables or factors that
`provide the frame that contains all those teaching
`leaming activities called distance education, The theory
`has been cited in numerous articles, chapters, and
`dissertations and most books about distance educa-
`tion.
`It was chosen as one of the world’s six most
`significant theories by the Australian writer, Keegan
`(Keegan, 1980, 1986). Another prominent writer on
`distance education, Borje Holmberg of The German
`Federal Republic has also cited the theory in many
`articles and papers, most notably in his book Growth
`and Struciure of Distance Education (Holmberg, 1986).
`In Britain, Greville Rumble said the theory contained
`"the most fruitful use of the term ‘distance’, and used
`it to orient readers of his book The Planning and Man-
`agement of Distance Education (Rumble, 1986). The
`most recent treatment is by the Americans Verduin and
`Clark, (199%).
`
`3. Leaming and teaching
`A great deal of spontaneous Isarning takes place
`through every day interactions with other people in
`face-to-face encounters. Much leaming also occurs
`through interaction with the ideas and influence of
`others through communications technology, especially
`audio and visual recordings, telecommunicatic ns, and
`through personal computers. However, in the same
`way that educators do not studyall interpersonal inter-
`actions, neitherdo westudy all communications through
`technology. Communication across distance is not
`itsalf education, but
`in distance education there is
`communication across distance between one or more
`persons engaged in planned learning and one or more
`who deliberately teach.
`2. Aworking definition of distance education is:
`As educators, ourinterest is only in those communi-
`Distance education consists of all arrangements for
`cations thatarestructured, and designed withaprimary
`providing instruction through print or electronic com-
`purpose of facilitating learning.It is true that we learn in
`munications media to persons engaged in planned
`the psychologist's use of that term, from casual or
`learning in a place or time different from that of the
`accidentgiinteractions with communications media just
`instructor or instructors.
`as we leem from all other stimuli but, as educators, we
`As defined, distance education consists of a whole
`are concerned only with learning thatis intentional. In
`family of teaching-learmning relationships ranging from
`Tough’s words,“There are lots of activities that lead to
`the largely self-directed through to the most highly
`leaming, but if that is not the person's primary intention,
`organized programs; from interactions between single
`we do notinclude it
`in our definition of a jeaming
`learners and individual tutors, to group leaming, to
`project” (Tough 1971).
`community education, to education and training in
`’ That's not to say that weare only interested in formal
`organizations. What distinguishes this large family of
`academic learnings.
`In distance education, we are
`educational transactions is the separation between
`concemed with ALL de ‘ibere‘e, planned learning where
`learner and teacher, so that the communication be-
`there is separation of tne iaamer in space and/or time
`tween the two that is necessary in
`educational
`from the source of instruction.
`transaction is transmitted through media,i.e. printed
`study guides, television or radio broadcasting, tele-
`communications media, correspondence instruction
`through the mail, audio and video recordings, comput-
`ers, ano various combinations and variations of these.
`Programs are designed in whichinstructors and lear-
`ers carry on the dialogue across space and time that
`traditionally and conventionally occurs face-to-face. At
`the simplest level these programs might be print-only
`
`4. Distance Teaching
`Like other forms of education, distance educationis a
`two-sided relationship. tisatransaction between leamers
`and educator. Justasleamingthat we study isintentioned,
`80 too is the behavior of educators. The intentions of
`educators include: deciding what people might want to
`learn or what society or an organization wants them to
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`learn; presenting information; organizing practice;
`bringingthe laamertocertain experiences;givingsupport,
`guidance and motivation; arranging for feedback and
`evaluation. Allthisis deliberately planned and presented.
`
`5. Educational philosophy
`Distance education is driven by the same variety of
`educational philosophies that we find in education
`ly. There are distance education programs and
`institutions characterized by programs that are based
`on an information processing theory of leaming, pro-
`grams based on behavioristic training approaches to
`learning, and, though less common, programs based
`on concepts of humanistic self-actualization and on
`aducational philosophies and theories of social change.
`For the educator who would follow a Freireian or
`Antigonish type of approach to social reconstruction
`through adult education, distance education technol-
`ogy could be a powerful tool. For the humanist who
`wouldfacilitate individual salf-actualizationthrough adult
`education following a Masiow-Rogerian approach,dis-
`tance education technology could also be a powerful
`tool, Distance education technology has for some time
`been a powerfultoolfor trainers in the corporate sector
`and the armed forces and elsewhere who have madeit
`possible for adult leamers to acquire new vocational
`skills regardiess of their geographic location or the
`location of expert resources, with learners leaming in
`their workplaces, and instruction provided through com-
`munications technology.
`6. Evolution of distance education
`As has been pointed out by Miller (1990), the univer-
`sity campusandits classroom are types of educational
`“delivery system” that have their origins in the technol-
`ogy, economy, and social environment of pre-industrial
`Europe.Atthattimein that place education was for only
`the male children of the aristocracy, and there were few
`scholars and books. Under these circumstances the
`best form of communication for the purposes of educa-
`tion was to bring students together in one place for a
`period of time to learn from the masters. Many of our
`educational problemstodayarisefrom the inability of an
`educational system that is organized as classroom
`instruction to adjust to changes that have occurred in
`the population of students, the ownership of know!-
`edge, and the media of communication. The entrench-
`mentof the old delivery system in fact leads to barriers
`such as have been described by Dim (1990), most
`importantly, barriers of place,time, access to resources
`and barriers of cost. He goes on to point out, as does
`Millerthe changes that have, occurred inthedemography
`of education. An increas‘ng proportion of students are
`adult, mobile and unwil'ing to devote iull time to study.
`Education is now ccnsidered a universal right, and
`increasingly it is ~xpscted to continue throughlife. As
`for knowledge,it is no longer the property of a small
`non-laboring e1ite, and is sought for more utilitarian
`reasons than it was by them,
`Against this background of change in the assump-
`tions about education, has comean evolution in under-
`standing of the ways in which communications media
`can be used in teaching.In this evolution, two events
`
`in particular. The first was Charles
`stand out
`Wedemeyer's experiments between 1963 and 19686 at
`the University of Wisconsin when he attempted to
`“articulate” or jcin together, instruction by new, elec-
`tronic communications media and traditional corre-
`spondence teaching. This was the first full scale test
`and development of the hypothesis that the activity of
`teaching could be broken In*t> constituent acts and a
`variety of media used,selective y, to deliverthe instruc-
`tion to the distant leamer, r:ore effectively than by
`correspondence or any other single medium alone
`(Wedemeyer and Najem, 1967). Following the success
`of the Articulated Instructional Media experiment,
`Wedemeyer was invited to Britain in 1968, and applied
`his experience in advising the British on the design of
`the British Open University, The establishment of the
`Open University was the second milestone in the evo-
`lution of modem distance education, It proved the
`effectiveness of teaching by integrated multi-media
`communications technologies and the benefits of spe-
`cialization in the activities of course design,instruction,
`and leamer support, It opened up continuing, poten-
`tially lifelong, education to duit teamers in their homes
`and workplaces on a scale so large it has been de-
`scribsd as “industrial”. In the years since the Open
`University beganinstruction in 1970, more than a score
`of other similar large scale systems have been devel-
`oped, from Venezuela and Canada in the west, through
`almost every European nation, to India, Pakistan to
`Indonesia, and the Australian States.
`
`7. Institutional structures
`As pointed out by Mark (1990), very little has been
`done to analyse distance education organizations in
`terms of any recognized organizational typologies or
`models, Most categorizations have been bused on
`envi: onmental dependence, I.e, is distance leaming
`part of a larger institution or does it stand alone? Looked
`at in this way the organizations of distance education in
`higher education can be classified in the following way.
`Asimilar classification could be made in the corporate,
`military or other non-higher education sactors:
`
`1, Distance Laaming Institutions: These are purpose
`built, autonomous Institutions each headed by its
`own Chief Executive Officer, with activities di-
`rected exciusivaly to distance education and dis-
`tance leamers.
`2. Distance Learning Unit: this is a subunit,(in higher
`education, of a college or university,) EQUAL to
`other academic units organized within a traditional
`framework of governance.
`3. Distance Leaming Program. A subunit whose
`educational activitiesalso include traditional class-
`room teaching. The Program usually does not
`have its own faculty, and provides mainly admin-
`istrative support services.
`4. Consortium. The educational activities are directed
`exclusively to distance education. The consortium
`is made up ofInstitutions, Units or Programs as
`defined above, and is headed by a director.
`Examples ofInstitutions are: The American College,
`Athabasca University, Thomas Edison State College,
`
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`and Empire State College.University independent Study
`Divisions represent Distance Leaming Units, while ex-
`amples of Consortia are the Intemational University
`Consortium, and the National University Teleconfer-
`ence Network, A trend to intemationalism in distance
`education consortia is represented by the Global Uni-
`versity Consortium.
`Areview ofthe history of distance education over the
`past two decades suggests that we are now well into a
`new stagein its practice that could have consequences
`for its theory as significant as the conceptuaiization of
`distance education itself. This new phenomenon is the
`development, proliferation and reduction in cost of a
`new type of communications media that was only in the
`early stages of development in the U.S. when distance
`education theory wasfirst conceptualized, and is still
`underdeveloped in other parts of the worid. This is the
`family of teleconferencs media,i.e. the use of interac-
`tive computer networks and audio, audio-graphic, and
`video networks, which may be local, regional, national
`and international and are linked by cable, microwave
`and satellite. Such telecommunications are affecting,
`and are likely to affect even more all three dimensions
`of distance education: dialogue between leamer and
`instructor, structure of course design, and the au-
`tonomy of the distant learner.
`
`8. Effects of disi‘ance on educational organizations
`The most ofvious effect of distance between leamer
`andinstructoris that communication between them has
`to be throughanartificial communications medium. The
`most commonof these include: printec’ »ublications of
`manykinds;writing, usually known as Correspondence
`study; broadcasts by radio or television; audio and
`video recordings; narrowcasts to special receivers by
`cable, satellite, or microwave; interactive televonfer-
`ences by computer, telephone, and two way video.
`Most good distance education programs use combina-
`tions of these media.Print serves weil as the medium for
`communicating the basic framework of a course and
`providing in-depth analysis and dense information toads,
`while the electronic recorded media bring cctor and
`highly motivating visual and audial stimuli; the new
`teleconference media not only provide intimate instruc-
`tor-lsamer contact, but allow inter-leamer interaction,
`leading to collective learning and to the potential for
`learner participation in program design, implementa-
`tion, and evaluation,
`If artificial communication is a distinguishing charac-
`teristic of distance education, other significant charac-
`teristics arise from it. Most importantly, because com-
`munications media require very specialised skills, and
`because the media differ in their suitability for different
`instructional processes, the various activities tradition-
`ally grouped under the term “teaching” are,in distance
`education, the work of different specialists. In other
`words, in distance education there is a division of the
`labor of teaching.
`Communications hardware and the labor of commu-
`nications specialists is expensive, and the total cost of
`adistance education course is usually much higher than
`conventional courses. However the distance education
`course can be distributed over a wide geographic area
`
`to muchlarger audiencesthan conventional instruction,
`and so the higher costs can be amortized over a larger
`student body. When large numbers receive instruction’
`through broadcast, print or recorded mediait may be
`very Impersonal. Properly organized distance educa-
`tion systems arrange for interpersonal, student-tutor
`interaction through Correspondence, teleconferencing
`and even occasional face-to-face meetings. As aresult
`the leamer in distance education may receive less
`structured, more dialogic, and less distant instruction
`than in conventional education.
`To ensure that the work of the various specialists is
`integrated and the various parts of a course are pro-
`duced on schedule, and the instruction is effective ina
`population that is not only large but also very diverse,
`the distance education organization employs instruc-
`tional technologists who control the process using
`systems design principles.
`The above features, division of jabor, use of expen-
`sive capital, systematic design and production of mate-
`rials, and their large scale use, add up toa revolutionary
`change in teaching, substituting space-age technology
`for traditional cottage craft. It was the inability of estab-
`lished educational institutions in most countries to
`restructure their human and other resources to take
`advamage of new communications media and to de-
`velop new formsofteaching that led in the 1970's to the
`birth of a new type of educational institution. The
`adoption of this new form of educational provision ina
`wide range of cultural, economic, political and social
`environments, makes it one of the mostinternationalof
`educational phenomenaand the mostwidelyproliferat-
`ing educational innovation ofthe late twentieth century.
`
`9. Teleconferencing
`In the United States the teleconferencir.g revolution is
`already underway. For example, satellite delivered pro-
`grams at the university level are produced by and
`delivered to members of the National University Tele-
`conference Network. In NUTN there are more than 260
`organizations either providing or receiving a range of
`over 100 programs —ive,by satellite, with programsin
`such areas as; aging, agriculture, A.1.D.S., child abuse,
`tax planning, reading instruction, engineering, interper-
`sonal relationships,
`international affairs, marketing,
`medicine, and social and political sffairs. Video telecon-
`ferencing through N.U.T.N. has been the medium of
`program delivery to as many as 6000 people at a time,
`located at some 200 receive sites. As well as taking
`NUTN transmission, many universities transmit their
`own satellite teleconference programs within to their
`state campuses and beyond. Well known among these
`are Oklahoma State, the University of Notre Dame,
`University of Maryland, Califomia State College, Chico,
`and PennState.
`In the National T. hnological University, 24 of the
`country's major universities collaborate to produce
`about 500 post-graduate courses in engineering, dellv-
`ered by satellite directly to more than 100 workplaces,
`Typical of N.T.U. programs was a project in which the
`Massachusetts Institute of Technology provided an
`updating program forelectrical engineering faculty from
`72 engineering schools across the nation.
`
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`In private business, niore than 200 of America’s
`biggest companies use satellite delivered, video
`conferencing. Typicalof the efforts of dozens of major
`corporations to introduce video conferencing into their
`training programsis The Interactive Satellite Education
`Network (ISEN), IBM's satellite borne system.This is a
`one-way video, two-way audio network, with originat-
`ing studios in four cities, and receive sites in thirteen.
`Other corporationsinclude: Federal Express, with daily
`programs to 800 downlinks nationwide; Kodak Corpo-
`ration sending twice weekly, two hour long, training
`programs, currently nationwide but with plans for an
`international network; Tandem Computers, broadcast-
`ing to eleven European countries as well as to 72 sites
`in North America; The AETNA Insurance corporation:
`and Domino's Pizza, whose Training Director sends his
`mobile uplink to any store in the ccuntry where an
`employee has something to teach the rest.
`The American Telephones and Telegraph Corporation
`expanded from 5 videoteleconference sites in 1983 to
`130 in 1987. Some 20,000 of their employees take
`courses by this medium each year. As weil as corpora-
`tion owned systemsthere are also a number ofdelivery
`systemsthat produce and sell programs orsell satellite
`time and -oduction resources.In 1982 there were two
`such “business videoconference” networks; by 1987
`there were over 40, Examples are The Ameri>2" “ieha-
`bilitation Educaticnal Network, providing professio:.al
`continuing education for health care professionals at
`nearly 100 sites nationwide. One of AREN's programs,
`Management Vision, has been transmitted to more than
`650 sites.
`Nonprofit making bodies use teleconference satel-
`lites in their continuing education programs, organized
`by The Public Service Satellite Consortium.These in-
`clude The American Hospital Association, The Ameri-
`can LawInstitute, American Bar Association Commit-
`tee on Continuing Professional Education, The National
`Education Association, The AFL-CIO, and the
`U.S.Chamber of Commerce. Well know examples of
`computer conferencedistance teaching institutions in-
`ciude the Electronic University Network and New York
`Institute of Technology.
`In the schools area, audio, computer and satellite
`teleconferencing are in use though perhaps notto the
`extent of their use in adult and higher education, Ex-
`amples can include TERC, one of the “Star Schools”
`projects, the Telelanguage program in Nebraska, in
`which students in 24 school districts have participated
`in high schoo! audio conference instruction of modem
`languages; AT&T's “long dista::ce leaming network” in
`over 300 classroomsin 6 different countries. In 1986
`there were some 600 schools in the U.S.with satellite
`receiving equipment. Among leading providers has
`been TI-IN the Texas based enterprise, sending some
`two dozen courses five days a week, and the Arts and
`Sciences Teleconferencing Service, of Oklahoma State
`University, offering German languagesince 1985, and
`Calculus, Physics history and goverment more re-
`cently.
`
`10. Theory of Transactional Distance
`Distance in distance education is not merely geo-
`graphic,but is the psychological space between learner
`
`and teacher that arises from geographic distance and
`that through communications media has to be over-
`come. This has been termed “Transacticnal Distance”
`and has been defined as a function of two characteris-
`tics existing in all educational programs (Moore 1972,
`1983). The first of these is the extent and nature of the
`dialogue occuringwhen ateacher instructs and a leamer
`responds. Dialogue descrites the extent to which an
`educational) program provides fora leamerand a teacher
`to conduct a series of responses to the stimulus ofeach
`other. This dialogue is determined to some extentby the
`subject-matter of the course, by the educational phi-
`losophy of the individual or group responsible for the
`design of the course, by the personalities ofteacher and
`leamer, and by environmental factors. The most impor-
`tant of these is the medium of communication. For
`example, an educational program in which communica-
`tion betwean teacher and leamer is solely by radio or
`television permits no dialogue: the student might make
`aresponse to ateacher, but no consequent responseis
`possible. A programme by correspondence is more
`dialogic, yet not to the same extent as one taught by
`computer conference,
`The second characteristic that determines transac-
`tional distance are the elements in the design of a
`course that are collectively referred to us its structure.
`Structure expresses the rigidity or flexibility of the
`program's educationa! objectives, teaching strategies,
`and evaluation methods and the extent to which these
`are prepared for, or can be adapted fo, the object