ED 337 70S
`
`AUTHOR
`TITLE
`
`INSTITUTION
`PUB DATE
`NOTE
`PUB TYPE
`EDRS PRICE
`DESCRIPTORS
`
`DOCUMENT RESUME
`
`CE 059 486
`
`Miller, Aaron J., Ed.
`Applications of Computer Conferencing to Teacher
`Education and Human Resource Development. Proceedings
`from an International Symposium on computer
`Conferencing (Columbus, Ohio, June 13-15, 1991).
`Ohio State Univ., Columbus. Coll, of Education.
`91
`82p.
`Collected Works - Conference Proceedings (021)
`MF01/PCD4 Plus Postage.
`Adult Education; computer Assisted Instruction;
`Computer Networks; Computer software; «Computer Uses
`in Education; Distance Education; Educational
`Research; Educational Technology; Higher Education;
`•Labor Force Development; «Online Systems;
`Postsecondary Education; Research Methodology; Rural
`Education; «Staff Development; «Teacher Education;
`•Teleconferencing
`
`ABSTRACT
`This document contains the texts of seven invited
`presentations and six juried papers from a symposium on the uses of
`computer conferencing in teacher education and human resource
`development. The invited presentations include the following:
`"Computer Conferencing in the Context of Theory and Practice of
`Distance Education" (Michael G. Moore); "An Introduction to Computer
`Conferencing: A Look at Software Available in the Academic World"
`(Alex Cruz); "Delivering Credit Courses by Computer and Other
`Observations" (Donald R. McNeil); "The Fully Electronic University,
`or, Mind Expansion without Drugs" (Edward B. Yarrish); "Teaching by
`Computer Conferencing" (Linda Harasim); "Guidelines for Conducting
`Instructional Discussions on a Computer Conference" (Mark E. Eisley);
`and "Developing a Learning community in Distance Education" (Robin
`Mason). Juried papers are as follows; "Extending the RJ-11 Connection
`for Audio and Computer Conferencing" (Larry Hudson, Robert Paugh, and
`Phyllis Olmstead); "Telecommunications Networks in Action: An
`Inter-University Project" (Constance Pollard, and Valerie Akeyo);
`"Electronic Mail, Conferencing, and Student Teaching" (Paul E. Post);
`"A Focus Group Report on Religious On-Line Education" (James T.
`Roberson, Jr.); "Research and Development Activities Regarding
`Opportunities and Problems with computer Conferencing for Rural
`America" (Ronald M. Stammen); and "Examining Computer Conferencing as
`a Technique for Enhancing Personnel Development Activities" (Robert
`M. Torres et al.). The first appendix lists the affiliations of the
`principal speakers and presenters of juried papers; the second
`appendix provides names, addresses, and electronic mail listings for
`conference participants. (KC)
`
`* Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be made
`from the original document.
`»
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`Applications of Computer Conferencing
`To Teacher Education and
`Human Resource Development
`
`ED337705
`
`Proceedings from an International Symposium
`on Computer Conferencing
`at
`The Ohio State University
`Columbus, Ohio
`June 13-15,1991
`
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`Applications of Computer Conferencing
`To Teacher Education and
`Human Resource Development
`
`Edited by:
`Aaron J. Miller
`1991
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`Copyright © 1991
`
`The Ohio State University
`College of Education
`Columbus, Ohio
`
`All Rights Reserved
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`Preface
`
`The 1991 Ohio State University “Computer Conferencing
`Conference” was permeated with both substance and an innovative
`spirit. Proceedings volumes typically capture the substance of
`meetings but rarely do they capture the spirit. This volume does
`capture a bit of the spirit—a spirit that kept the attendance at the
`same level at Saturday noon as at the opening session on Thursday
`morning.
`
`Much educational effort around the world is in one way or
`another an effort to understand the world, its people, and its
`phenomena. A common theme that runs through many of the papers
`in this Proceedings is tlie potential for firsthand information and
`immediacy in communication. The impact on education is just
`beginning to be felt. Even Jules Veme would not have envisioned
`going around the world in 80 seconds. Today’s student doing a
`geography project on Japan can logon and get his or her questions
`answered by someone in Japan.
`
`The authors here have envisioned better education through
`computer conferencing. They have described their experiences in
`distance education, the supervision of student teachers, electronic
`focus groups, and many varied forms of interactive electronic
`education. Impressively, they have related their experiences to our
`existing learning theory and other relevant databases. In so doing,
`they make a major contribution to the creation of a database on
`interactive electronic education.
`
`Gilbert A. Jarvis
`The Ohio State University
`
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`Acknowledgements
`
`The process of education and human resource development has
`changed radically during the past 15 years. One major factor
`contributing to this change is the use of the computer and computer
`dedicated communications. The International Symposium on
`Applications of Computer Conferencing To Teacher Education and
`Human Resource Development provided a forum for examining the
`latest practices and issues related to the use of comp* fter mediated
`communications, and specifically computer co iferencing, to
`education and training.
`
`Sincere appreciation is expressed to the Department of Educational
`Studies and the College of Education for financially supporting this
`symposium. Also, our special gratitude and recognition is given to
`the Academic Computing Services, and The Center on Education
`and Training For Employment for their support in planning and
`providing special technical expertise and professional staff time in
`the conduct of the symposium.
`
`Aaron J. Miller
`Symposium Coordinator
`
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`Table of Contents
`
`Preface.......................................................................................................................................i»
`
`Acknowledgements....................................................................................................................v
`
`Invited Presentations:
`
`Computer Conferencing in the Context of Theory and
`Practice of Distance Education
`Michael G. Moore........................ ............................................................................... .1
`
`An Introduction to Computer Conferencing: A Look At
`Software Available in The Academic World
`Alex Cruz....................................................................................................................11
`
`Delivering Credit Courses By Computer and Other Observations
`Donald R. McNeil...................................................................................................... 15
`
`The Fully Electronic University; Or, Mind Expansion
`Without Drugs
`Edward B. Yarrish..................................................................................................... 19
`
`Teaching By Computer Conferencing
`Linda Harasim........................................................................................................... 25
`
`Guidelines For Conducting Instructional Discussions On A
`Computer Conference
`Mark E. Eisley............................................................................................................ 35
`
`Developing A Learning Community In Distance Education
`Robin Mason............................................................................................................. 41
`
`Referred Papers:
`
`Extending The RJ-11 Connection For Audio and
`Computer Conferencing
`Larry Hudson, Robert Paugh, and Phyllis Olmstead................................................. 47
`
`Telecommunications Networks in Action: An Inter-university
`Project
`Constance Pollard and Valerie Akeyo........................................................................53
`
`Electronic Mail, Conferencing, and Student Teaching
`Paul E. Post................................................................................................................57
`
`A Focus Group Report On Religious On-Line Education
`James T. Roberson, Jr............................................................................................... 59
`
`Research and Development Activities Regarding Opportunities
`and Problems With Computer Conferencing For Rural America
`Ronald M. Stammen.........................................................................................................65
`
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`Examining Computer Conferencing As A Technique For
`Enhancing Personnel Development Activities
`Robert M. Torres, Wesley E. Budke, Charles M. Loyd,
`N. L. McCaslin, and Aaron J. Miller................................................................................... 69
`
`Appendix A
`About the Speakers.................................................................................................................. 77
`
`Appendix B
`Symposium Participants.......................................................................................................... 79
`
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`Computer Conferencing
`In The Context Of Theory and Practice
`Of Distance Education
`
`by
`Michael Grahame Moore
`
`1. Introduction/background
`The first attempt in English to define distance educa­
`tion and to articulate a theory of this form of education
`appeared in an article called "Toward a theory of Inde­
`pendent Learning and Teaching” published in The Jour­
`nal of Higher Education in 1973 (Moore, 1973). This
`theory, sometimes called the two-dimensional theory
`was an attempt to identify the “macrofactors" of dis­
`tance education, i.e. the basic variables or factors that
`provide the frame that contains all those teaching
`teaming activities called distance education. The theory
`has been cited in numerous articles, chapters, and
`dissertations and most books about distance educa­
`tion. It was chosen as one of the world's six most
`significant theories by the Australian writer, Keegan
`(Keegan, 1980, 1986). Another prominent writer on
`distance education, Borje Holmberg of The German
`Federal Republic has also cited the theory in many
`articles end papers, most notably in his book Growth
`and Structure of Distance Education (Holmberg, 19B6).
`In Britain, Greville Rumble said the theory contained
`“the most fruitful use of the term ‘distance’”, and used
`it to orient readers of his book The Planning and Man­
`agement of Distance Education (Rumble, 1986). The
`most recent treatment is by the Americans Verduin and
`Clark. (1991).
`
`2. A working definition of distance education is:
`Distance education consists of all arrangements for
`providing instruction through print or electronic com­
`munications media to persons engaged in planned
`learning in a place or time different from that of the
`instructor or instructors.
`As defined, distance education consists of a whole
`family of teaching-learning relationships ranging from
`the largely self-directed through to the most highly
`organized programs: from interactions between single
`learners and individual tutors, to group learning, to
`community education, to education and training tn
`organizations. What distinguishes this large family of
`educational transactions is the separation between
`learner and teacher, so that the communication be­
`tween the two that is necessary In every educational
`transaction is transmitted through media, i.e. printed
`study guides, television or radio broadcasting, tele­
`communications media, correspondence instruction
`through the mail, audio and video recordings, comput­
`ers, ano various combinations and variations of these.
`Programs are designed in which instructors and learn­
`ers carry on the dialogue across space and time that
`traditionally and conventionally occurs face-to-face. At
`the simplest level these programs might be print-only
`
`self-study packages for use by highly independent
`students. More often courses are taught through two or
`more media, such as study guide with correspondence;
`study guide, audio-tape and correspondence; telecon­
`ference and study guide; television broadcast, study
`guide and face-to-face class In theory there should be.
`(and often is in some overseas Open Uni -ersities) full
`integration of all such media: study guke. broadcast­
`ing, recordings, correspondence, face-to-race classes,
`computer-accessed data and interactions, teleconfer­
`ences, and even kits of electronics or chemicals for
`experimentation in the student's home.
`
`3, Learning and teaching
`A great deal of spontaneous teaming takes place
`through every day interactions with other people in
`face-to-face encounters. Much teaming also occurs
`through interaction with the ideas and influence of
`others through communications technology, especially
`audio and visual recordings, telecommunicate ns. and
`through personal computers. However, in the same
`way that educators do not study all interpersonal inter­
`actions. neither do we study all communications through
`technology. Communication across distance is not
`itself education, but in distance education there is
`communication across distance between one or more
`persons engaged in planned teaming and one or more
`who deliberately teach.
`As educators, our interest is only in those communi­
`cations that are structured, and designed with a primary
`purpose of facilitating teaming. It is true that we team in
`the psychologist's use of that term, from casual or
`accidents; interactions with communications media just
`as we teem from all other stimuli but, as educators, we
`are concerned only with learning that Is intentional. In
`Tough's words. “There are lots of activities that lead to
`learning, but if that is not the person's primary intention,
`we do not include it in our definition of a teaming
`project" (Tough 1971),
`• That's not to say that we are only interested in formal
`academic learnings. In distance education, we are
`concerned with ALL de ’iberp'.e, planned learning where
`there is separation of tne ieamer in space and/or time
`from the source of instruction.
`
`4. Distance Teaching
`Like other forms of education, distance education is a
`two-sided relationship. It isa transaction between learners
`and educator. Just as teaming that we study is intentioned.
`so too is the behavior of educators. The intentions of
`educators include: deciding what people might want to
`team or what society or an organization wants them to
`
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`learn; presenting information; organizing practice;
`bringing the learner to certain experiences; giving support,
`guidance and motivation; arranging for feedback and
`evaluation. All this is deliberately planned and presented.
`
`5. Educational philosophy
`Distance education is driven by the same variety of
`educational philosophies that we find in education
`generally. There are distance education programs and
`institutions characterized by programs that are based
`on an information processing theory of learning, pro­
`grams based on behavioristic training approaches to
`learning, and, though less common, programs based
`on concepts of humanistic setf-actualizatlon and on
`educational philosophies and theories of social change.
`For the educator who would follow a Freireian or
`Antigonish type of approach to social reconstruction
`through adult education, distance education technol­
`ogy could be a powerful tool. For the humanist who
`would facilitate individual self-actualization through adult
`education following a Maslow-Rogerian approach, dis­
`tance education technology could also be a powerful
`tod. Distance education technology has for some time
`been a powerful tool for trainers in the corporate sector
`and the armed forces and elsewhere who have made it
`possible for adult learners to acquire new vocational
`skills regardless of their geographic location or the
`location of expert resources, with learners learning in
`their workplaces, and instruction provided through com­
`munications technology.
`
`6. Evolution of distance education
`As has been pointed out by Miller (1990), the univer­
`sity campus and Its classroom are types of educational
`“delivery system" that have their origins in the technol­
`ogy, economy, and social environment of pre-industrial
`Europe. At that time in that place education was for only
`the male children of the aristocracy, and there were few
`scholars and books. Under these circumstances the
`best form of communication for the purpose of educa­
`tion was to bring students together in one place for a
`period of time to learn from the masters. Many of our
`educational problems today arise from the inability of an
`educational system that is organized as classroom
`instruction to adjust to changes that have occurred in
`the population of students, the ownership of knowl­
`edge. and the media of communication. The entrench­
`ment of the old delivery system in fact leads to barriers
`such as have been described by Dirr (1990), most
`importantly, barriers of place, time, access to resources
`and barriers of cost. He goeu on to point out, as does
`Miller the changes that haw, occurred in the demography
`of education. An increasmg proportion of students are
`adult, mobile and unwilling to devote lull time to study.
`Education is now considered a universal right, and
`increasingly it is expected to continue through life. As
`for knowledge, it is no longer the property of a small
`non-laboring eiite, and is sought for more utilitarian
`reasons than it was by them.
`Against this background of change in the assump­
`tions about education, has come an evolution in under­
`standing of the ways in which communications media
`can be used in teaching. In this evolution, two events
`
`stand out In particular. The first was Charles
`Wedemeyer’s experiments between 1963 and 1966 at
`the University of Wisconsin when he attempted to
`“articulate" or join together, Instruction by new, elec­
`tronic communications media and traditional corre­
`spondence teaching. This was the first full scale test
`and development of the hypothesis that the activity of
`teaching could be broken intn constituent acts and a
`variety of media used, selective y, to deliver the instruc­
`tion to the distant learner, more effectively than by
`correspondence or any other single medium alone
`(Wedemeyer and Najem, 1967). Following the success
`of the Articulated Instructional Media experiment.
`Wedemeyer was invited to Britain in 1968, and applied
`his experience in advising the British on the design of
`the British Open University. The establishment of the
`Open University was the second milestone In the evo­
`lution of modem distance education. It proved the
`effectiveness of teaching by integrated multi-media
`communications technologies and the benefits of spe­
`cialization in the activities of course design, instruction,
`and learner support. It opened up continuing, poten­
`tially lifelong, education to cdult learners in their homes
`and workplaces on a scale so large it has been de­
`scribed as “industrial". In the years since the Open
`University began instruction in 1970, more than a score
`of other similar large scale systems have been devel­
`oped, from Venezuela and Canada in the west, through
`almost every European nation, to India, Pakistan to
`Indonesia, and the Australian States.
`
`7. Institutional structures
`As pointed out by Mark (1990), very little has been
`done to analyse distance education organizations in
`terms of any recognized organizational typologies or
`models. Most categorizations have been based on
`envi.onmental dependence, i.e. is distance learning
`part of a larger institution or does it stand alone? Looked
`at in this way the organizations of distance education in
`higher education can be classified in the following way.
`A similar classification could be made in the corporate,
`military or other non-higher education sectors;
`1. Distance Learning Institutions: These are purpose
`built, autonomous institutions each headed by its
`own Chief Executive Officer, with activities di­
`rected exclusively to distance education and dis­
`tance learners.
`2. Distance Learning Unit: this is a subunit, (In higher
`education, of a college or university,) EQUAL to
`other academic units organized within a traditional
`framework of governance.
`3- Distance Learning Program. A subunit whose
`educational activities also include traditional class­
`room teaching. The Program usually does not
`have its own faculty, and provides mainly admin­
`istrative support services.
`4. Consortium. The educational activities are directed
`exclusively to distance education. The consortium
`is made up of Institutions, Units or Programs as
`defined above, and is headed by a director.
`Examples of Institutions are: The American College.
`Athabasca University, Thomas Edison State College,
`
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`and Empire State Col lege. University Independent Study
`Divisions represent Distance Learning Units, while ex*
`amples of Consortia are the international University
`Consortium, and the National University Teleconfer­
`ence Network. A trend to Internationalism in distance
`education consortia is represented by the Global Uni­
`versity Consortium.
`A review of the history of distance education over the
`past two decades suggests that we are now well into a
`new stage in its practice that could have consequences
`for its theory as significant as the conceptualization of
`distance education Itself. This new phenomenon is the
`development, proliferation and reduction in cost of a
`new type of communications media that was only In the
`early stages of development in the U.S. when distance
`education theory was first conceptualized, and is still
`underdeveloped in other parts of the world. This is the
`family of teleconference media, i.e. the use of interac­
`tive computer networks and audio, audio-graphic, and
`video networks, which may be local, regional, national
`and International and are linked by cable, microwave
`and satellite. Such telecommunications are affecting,
`and are likely to affect even more all three dimensions
`of distance education: dialogue between learner and
`instructor, structure of course design, and the au­
`tonomy of the distant learner.
`
`8. Effects of distance on educational organizations
`The most oh vious effect of distance between learner
`and instructor is that communication between them has
`to be through an artificial communications medium. The
`most common of these include: printed publications of
`many kinds; writing, usually known as correspondence
`study; broadcasts by radio or television; audio and
`video recordings; narrowcasts to special receivers by
`cable, satellite, or microwave; interactive teleconfer­
`ences by computer, telephone, and two way video.
`Most good distance education programs use combina­
`tions of these media. Print serves wed as the medium for
`communicating the basic framework of a course and
`providing in-depth analysis and dense information loads,
`wnile the electronic recorded media bring color and
`highly motivating visual and audial stimuli: the new
`teleconference media not only provide intimate instruc­
`tor-learner contact, but allow inter-learner interaction,
`leading to collective learning and to the potential for
`learner participation in program design, implementa­
`tion. and evaluation.
`If artificial communication is a distinguishing charac­
`teristic of distance education, other significant charac­
`teristics arise from it. Most importantly, because com­
`munications media require very specialised skills, and
`because the media differ in their suitability for different
`instructional processes, the various activities tradition­
`ally grouped under the term “teaching" are. in distance
`education, the work of different specialists. In other
`words, in distance education there is a division of the
`labor of teaching.
`Communications hardware and the labor of commu­
`nications specialists is expensive, and the total cost of
`a distance education course is usually much higher than
`conventional courses. However the distance education
`course can be distributed over a wide geographic area
`
`o
`ERIC
`
`to much larger audiences than conventional instruction,
`and so the higher costs can be amortized over a larger
`student body. When large numbers receive instruction
`through broadcast, print or recorded media it may be
`very Impersonal. Properly organized distance educa­
`tion systems arrange for interpersonal, student-tutor
`interaction through correspondence, teleconferencing
`and even occasional face-to-face meetings. As a result
`the learner in distance education may receive less
`structured, more dialogic, and less distant instruction
`than in conventional education.
`To ensure that the work of the various specialists is
`integrated and the various parts of a course are pro­
`duced on schedule, and the Instruction is effective in a
`population that is not only large but also very diverse,
`the distance education organization employs instruc­
`tional technologists who control the process using
`systems design principles.
`The above features, division of labor, use of expen­
`sive capital, systematic design and production of mate­
`rials. and th»r large scale use. add up to a revolutionary
`change in teaching, substituting space-age technology
`for traditional cottage craft. It was the inability of estab­
`lished educational institutions in most countries to
`restructure their human and other resources to take
`advantage of new communications media and to de­
`velop new forms of teaching that led in the 1970's to the
`birth of a new type of educational institution. The
`adoption of this new form of educational provision in a
`wide range of cultural, economic, political and social
`environments, makes it one of the most international of
`educational phenomena and the most widely proliferat­
`ing educational innovation of the late twentieth century.
`
`9. Teleconferencing
`In the United States the teleconferencing revolution is
`already underway. For example, satellite delivered pro­
`grams at the university level are produced by and
`delivered to members of the National University Tele­
`conference Network. In NUTN there are more than 260
`organizations either providing or receiving a range of
`over 100 programs —live, by satellite, with programs in
`such areas as: aging, agriculture, A.I.D.S., child abuse,
`tax planning, reading instruction, engineering, interper­
`sonal relationships, international affairs, marketing,
`medicine, and social and political affairs. Video telecon­
`ferencing through N.U.T.N. has been the medium of
`program delivery to as many as 6000 people at a time,
`located at some 200 receive sites. As well as taking
`NUTN transmission, many universities transmit their
`own satellite teleconference programs within to their
`state campuses and beyond. Well known among these
`are Oklahoma State, the University of Notre Dame.
`University of Maryland, California State College. Chico,
`and Penn State.
`In the National T. hnological University, 24 of the
`country's major universities collaborate to produce
`about 500 post-graduate courses in engineering, deliv­
`ered by satellite directly to more than 100 workplaces.
`Typical of N.T.U. programs was a project in which the
`Massachusetts Institute of Technology provided an
`updating program for electrical engineering faculty from
`72 engineering schools across the nation.
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`In private business, more than 200 of America's
`biggest companies use satellite delivered, video
`conferencing. Typical of the efforts of dozens of major
`corporations to introduce video conferencing Into their
`training programs is The Interactive Satellite Education
`Network (ISEN), IBM's satellite borne system. This is a
`one-way video, two-way audio network, with originat­
`ing studios in four cities, and receive sites in thirteen.
`Other corporations include: Federal Express, with daily
`programs to 800 downlinks nationwide; Kodak Corpo­
`ration sending twice weekly, two hour long, training
`programs, currently nationwide but with plans for an
`international network; Tandem Computers, broadcast­
`ing to eleven European countries as well as to 72 sites
`in North America; The AETNA Insurance corporation;
`and Domino’s Pizza, whose Training Director sends his
`mobile uplink to any store in the country where an
`employee has something to teach the rest.
`The American Telephone and Telegraph Corporation
`expanded from 5 videoteleconference sites in 1983 to
`130 in 1987. Some 20,000 of their employees take
`courses by this medium each year. As well as corpora­
`tion owned systems there are also a number of delivery
`systems that produce and sell programs or sell satellite
`time and ^reduction resources. In 1982 there were two
`such “business videoconference'' networks; by 1987
`there were over 40. Examples are The Amer"'*" Reha­
`bilitation Educational Network, providing professional
`continuing education for health care professionals at
`nearly 100 sites nationwide. One of AREN's programs,
`Management Vision, has been transmitted to more than
`650 sites.
`Non profit making bodies use teleconference satel­
`lites in their continuing education programs, organized
`by The Public Service Satellite Consortium .These in­
`clude The American Hospital Association, The Ameri­
`can Law Institute, American Bar Association Commit­
`tee on Continuing Professional Education, The National
`Education Association, The AFL-CIO, and the
`U.S.Chamber of Commerce. Well know examples of
`computer conference distance teaching institutions in­
`clude the Electronic University Network and New York
`Institute of Technology.
`In the schools area, audio, computer and satellite
`teleconferencing are in use though perhaps not to the
`extent of their use in adult and higher education. Ex­
`amples can include TERC, one of the “Star Schools"
`projects, the Telelanguage program in Nebraska, in
`which students in 24 school districts have participated
`in high school audio conference instruction of modem
`languages; AT&T’s “long distance learning network" in
`over 300 classrooms in 6 different countries. In 1986
`there were some 600 schools in the U.S. with satellite
`receiving equipment. Among leading providers has
`been Tl-IN the Texas based enterprise, sending some
`two dozen courses five days a week, and the Arts and
`Sciences Teleconferencing Service, of Oklahoma State
`University, offering German language since 1985. and
`Calculus, Physics history and government more re­
`cently.
`
`10. Theory of Transactional Distance
`Distance In distance education is not merely geo­
`graphic. but is the psychological space between learner
`
`and teacher that arises from geographic distance and
`that through communications media has to be over­
`come. This has been termed ’’Transactional Distance"
`and has been defined as a function of two characteris­
`tics existing in all educational programs (Moore 1972,
`1983). The first of these is the extent and nature of the
`dialogue occuring when a teacher instructs and a learner
`responds. Dialogue describes the extent to which an
`educational program provides for a learner and a teacher
`to conduct a series of responses to the stimulus of each
`other. This dialogue is determined to some extent by the
`subject-matter of the course, by the educational phi­
`losophy of the individual or group responsible for the
`design of the course, by the personalities of teacher and
`learner, and by environmental factors. The most impor­
`tant of these is the medium of communication. For
`example, an educational program in which communica­
`tion between teacher and learner is solely by radio or
`television permits no dialogue; the student might make
`a response to a teacher, but no consequent response is
`possible. A programme by correspondence is more
`dialogic, yet not to the same extent as one taught by
`computer conference.
`The second characteristic that determines transac­
`tional distance are the elements in the design of a
`course that are collectively referred to as its structure.
`Structure expresses the rigidity or flexibility of the
`program’s educational objectives, teaching strategies,
`and evaluation methods and the extent to which these
`are prepared for, or can be adapted to, the objectives,
`strategies, and evaluation needs of a parti