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`Handbook of Magnetic Measurements
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`S. Tumanski
`
`Magnetic Materials
`
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`S. Tumanski
`Published online on: 23 Jun 2011
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`

`

`3 M
`
`agnetic Materials
`
`3.1 Soft Magnetic Materials:
`General Information
`3.1.1 Properties and Classification
`Commonly,. ferromagnetic. or. ferrimagnetic. materials.
`are. considered. as. magnetic. materials. although. other.
`materials.(diamagnetic.and.paramagnetic).also.exhibit.
`some.magnetic.properties,.as.discussed.earlier..The.mag-
`netic.materials.can.be.further.classified.into.two.clearly.
`separate. categories:. soft. magnetic. materials. and. hard.
`magnetic.materials..Coercivity.is.assumed.as.the.main.
`criterion,.and.IEC.Standard.404-1.recommends.the.coer-
`civity.of.1000.A/m.as.a.value.to.distinguish.both.groups..
`This.border.is.rather.symbolic.because.both.classes.are.
`completely.different..From.soft.magnetic.materials,.we.
`require.the.coercivity.to.be.as.small.as.possible.(usually.
`much.less.than.100.A/m).while.hard.magnetic.materials.
`should. have. coercivity. as. high. as. possible. (commonly.
`above. 100,000.A/m).. There. is. also. a. subclass. of. hard.
`magnetic. materials. called. semi-hard. magnetic. materi-
`als. (with. coercivity. between. 1,000. and. 100,000.A/m)..
`Figure  3.1. presents. magnetic. materials. taking. into.
`account. their. coercivity. available. Vacuumschemlze.
`who.is.one.of.the.main.manufacturers.
`Soft. magnetic. materials. cover. huge. market. of. vari-
`ous. products:. about. 7.×.106. tons. annually. and. about.
`1010. Euro. (Moses. 2003).. We. can. divide. these. products.
`taking.onto.account.their.magnetic.performance,.appli-
`cations,.cost,.and.other.properties..For.example,.grain-
`oriented.silicon.steel.is.mechanically.much.harder.than.
`the. nonoriented,. so. the. same. punching. die. will. wear.
`off.after.producing.smaller.quantity.of.elements..Even.
`in.the.case.of.SiFe.electrical.steel,.the.best.grade.can.be.
`10.times.more.expensive.than.ordinary.grades.of.steel..
`And.between.cheep.ferrites.and.high-quality.soft.mag-
`netic. materials,. these. differences. in. cost. can. be. much.
`larger.
`Therefore,.selection.of.appropriate.kind.and.quality.of.
`material.for.a.given.application.is.an.important.knowl-
`edge.. For. example,. the. best. quality. steel. after. prepa-
`ration. of. the. product. can. be. much. more. deteriorated.
`than. cheaper. material. that. after. the. same. technology.
`can. exhibit. better. performance. (Schneider. et. al.. 1998,.
`Schoppa.et.al..2000,.Wilczynski.et.al..2004)..Figure.3.2.
`
`presents.a.comparison.of.the.main.parameters.of.typical.
`soft.magnetic.materials.including.their.cost.
`It.would.be.nice.to.be.able.to.find.the.soft.magnetic.
`material.with.all.excellent.properties.(high.saturation.
`polarization,.small.losses,.small.coercivity,.small.mag-
`netostriction,.good.mechanical.properties,.etc.).even.at.
`much.higher.price..But.such.material.simply.does.not.
`exist..We.have.to.accept.always.some.compromises—
`high.permeability.at.the.cost.of.saturation.polarization.
`(Figure.3.3),.small.power.loss.at.the.cost.of.saturation.
`polarization,. better. magnetic. parameters. at. the. cost.
`of. mechanical. properties,. etc.. Fortunately,. there. is. a.
`plethora. of. various. magnetic. materials. and. appro-
`priate. technology. often. helps. to. find. desirable. mate-
`rial.(Fish.1990,.Moses.1990,.1992,.2003,.Pfützner.1992,.
`Arai. and. Ishiyama. 1994,. McCurrie. 1994,. Kronmüller.
`1995,.Stodolny.1995,.Fiorillo.1996,.Schneider.et.al..1998,.
`Goldman. 1999,. O’Handley. 2000,. Beckley. 2000,. 2002,.
`Geoffroy. and. Porteseil. 2005,. Peuzin. 2005,. Degauque.
`et. al.. 2006,. De. Wulf. 2006,. Lebourgeois. and. Guyot.
`2006,. Waecklerle. 2006,. Waeckerle. and. Alves. 2006a,b,.
`Kazimierczuk.2009).
`Taking. into. account. the. main. applications. of. soft.
`magnetic.materials,.it.should.be.noted.that.this.situation.
`continues. to. change. and. develop.. For. example,. it. was.
`traditionally.assumed.that.the.main.area.of.application.
`of. silicon. steel. is. electric. power. industry.. But. recently,.
`more. and. more. power. electric. and. power. electronics.
`devices. use. higher. frequency. signals,. up. to. MHz.. In.
`high. frequency. range,. electrical. steel. exhibits. prohibi-
`tively. high. power. loss. and. should. be. substituted. by.
`nanocrystalline.and.even.ferrite.materials.(Figure 3.4)..
`Consequently,. in. such. applications,. other. accompa-
`nying. devices,. for. example,. measuring. transformers,.
`should.be.also.made.from.high-frequency.materials..In.
`turn,.the.progress.in.nanocrystalline/amorphous.mate-
`rials.resulted.in.development.of.new.classical.electrical.
`steel.(e.g.,.thinner.gauge.of.even.0.15.mm).
`Taking.into.account.the.importance.of.various.groups.
`of. soft. magnetic. materials,. it. should. be. noted. that.
`almost.80%.of.the.market.is.occupied.by.SiFe.electrical.
`steel.(Figure.3.5)..With.ferrites.and.permalloys.(NIFe),.it.
`is.more.than.95%.and.we.can.see.that.other.materials,.
`including.amorphous.and.nanocrystalline.are.marginal.
`in.value.
`
`117
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`

`

`CoFeV
`
`FeCrCo
`
`CoFeNi
`
`CrCo steel
`
`Soft
`
`CoFe
`
`Fe, SiFe
`
`NiFe
`
`Nanocrystalline
`
`Amorphous
`
`118
`
`2.5
`
`2.0
`
`1.5
`
`1.0
`
`0.5
`
`Saturation polarization (T)
`
`Handbook of Magnetic Measurements
`
`Semi hard
`
`Hard
`
`CoFe
`
`SiFe
`
`Fe-based
`amorphous
`
`Nano
`
`MnZn ferrite
`
`NiFe
`
`Co-based
`amorphous
`
`2
`
`1
`
`Saturation (T)
`
`103
`
`104
`
`Permeability
`
`105
`
`FIGURE 3.3
`Comparison. of. the. permeability. and. coercivity. of. the. typical. soft.
`magnetic.materials..(After.Moses,.A.J.,.Przegl. Elektr.,.79,.457,.2003.)
`
`60% NiFe
`
`MnZn ferrite
`
`Amorphous CoSiB
`
`Nanocrystalline
`
`f (kHz)
`100
`
`50
`
`100
`
`10
`
`1
`
`Hysteresis loss (W/kg)
`
`0.1
`10
`
`20
`
`FIGURE 3.4
`Hysteresis.power.loss.versus.frequency.of.high-frequency.materials..
`(From.Kolano,.R..and.Kolano-Burian,.A.,.Przegl. Elektr.,.78,.241,.2002.)
`
`If. a. material. is. used. for. magnetic. shielding,. then. its.
`losses.are.not.as.important.as.the.permeability,.and.hence.
`amorphous. materials. or. permalloy. is. advisable.. In. the.
`case.of.high-frequency.applications,.apart.from.the.losses,.
`deterioration. of. magnetic. properties. (e.g.,. permeability).
`with.frequency.is.important,.so.from.Table.3.1.we.can.see.
`that,.in.this.case,.the.materials.would.be.ordered.as.fol-
`lows:.SiFe,.NiFe,.amorphous/nanocrystalline,.MnZn.fer-
`rite,.NiZn.ferrite.(and.in.microwave.range,.garnets).
`Especially. important. are. the. CoFe. alloys. because.
`they.exhibit.high.saturation.polarization.with.the.high-
`est.known.value.of.2.46.T..Table.3.2.presents.the.typical.
`applications.of.soft.magnetic.materials.
`Figure.3.6.presents.a.diversity.of.soft.magnetic.mate-
`rials. currently. available. commercially.. The. properties.
`of. such. materials. will. discussed. in. more. detail. in. the.
`.following.sections.
`
`3.1.2 Pure Iron
`Pure. iron. has. excellent. magnetic. properties:. large.
`.saturation. polarization.
`low.
`coercivity.
`JS.=.2.15.T,.
`
`NdFeB
`
`SmCo
`AlNiCo
`
`NiFe 80 Ni
`
`Soft ferrites
`
`PtCo
`
`1
`
`10
`
`100
`1k
`10 k
`Coercivity (A/m)
`
`100 k 1000 k
`
`FIGURE 3.1
`Ranges.of.commercially.available.magnetic.materials.(as.an.example.
`of.products.offered.by.Vacuumschmelze).
`
`SiFe
`
`Iron
`
`Cost
`
`Amorphous
`and nano
`
`NiFe
`
`Soft ferrites
`
`2
`
`1.5
`
`1
`
`0.5
`
`Saturation (T)
`
`1
`
`10
`
`Coercivity (A/m)
`100
`
`FIGURE 3.2
`Comparison.of.the.coercivity,.saturation,.and.cost.of.typical.soft.mag-
`netic.materials.
`
`Depending. on. application,. various. properties. are.
`required.. In. the. case. of. electric. power. devices. (power.
`and. distribution. transformers,. electric. machines),. the.
`most. important. factors. are. low. power. loss. and. high.
`saturation. polarization.. If. we. would. like. to. choose.
`only. between. silicon. steel. and. amorphous. materials.
`(neglecting.other.factors),.we.arrive.at.a.contradiction—.
`amorphous. materials. exhibit. smaller. power. loss. but.
`also. significantly. smaller. saturation. polarization. and.
`vice.versa..Table.3.1.presents.the.comparison.of.param-
`eters.for.the.main.soft.magnetic.materials.
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`

`Magnetic Materials
`
`119
`
`NO SiFe
`53%
`
`GO SiFe
`30%
`
`Rest
`17%
`
`Ferrites
`7.5%
`
`NiFe
`5%
`
`Other
`0.5%
`
`Amorph
`1.5%
`Powder
`2.5%
`
`FIGURE 3.5
`Annual.value.of.world.production.of.soft.magnetic.materials..(After.Schneider,.J..et.al.,.J. Phys.,.8,.Pr2-755,.1998.)
`
`TABLE 3.1
`Comparison.of.Parameters.for.the.Main.Soft.Magnetic.Materials
`
`Parameter
`Bs.(T)
`Hc.(A/m)
`P1.5.T/50.Hz.(W/kg)
`P1.T/1.kHz.(W/kg)
`μmax.×.1000
`Frequency.range.(kHz)
`
`3% SiFe GO
`2.03
`4–15
`0.83
`20
`20–80
`3
`
`FeSiB Metglas
`1.56
`0.5–2
`0.27
`5
`100–500
`250
`
`Ni80Fe20 Permalloy
`0.82
`0.4–2
`
`10
`100–1,000
`20
`
`Co50Fe50 Permendur
`2.46
`160
`1
`20
`2–6
`up.to.1.kHz
`
`MnZn Ferrite
`0.2–0.5
`20–80
`
`3–6
`2,000.NiZn—100,000
`
`TABLE 3.2
`Typical.Applications.of.the.Main.Soft.Magnetic.Materials
`
`Electrical
`Steel
`
`Fe-Based
`Amorphous
`
`Powder
`
`CoFe
`
`Ferrite
`
`Application
`Power.transformers
`Distribution.transformers
`Lamp.ballasts
`Induction.motors
`Generators
`Reactors
`Other.motors
`Special.transformers
`Chokes
`Power.electronics
`Instrumentation
`Pulsed.power
`Shielding
`
`Source:. After.Moses,.A.J.,.Przegl. Elektr.,.80,.1181,.2004..With.permission.
`
`Hc.=.3–12.A/m,. and. high. permeability. μmax.=.280,000.
`.(single. crystal. magnetically. annealed. even. up. to.
`1,400,000).. But. the. main. problem. is. that. such. per-
`formance. is. displayed. only. by. pure. iron:. even. small.
`quantities. of. impurities. cause. significant. deterioration.
`of. magnetic. properties. (Figure. 3.7).. In. practice,. such.
`extremely. pure. material. is. expensive. and. possible. to.
`use.only.in.laboratory.
`Commercially. available. pure. iron. has. much. smaller.
`permeability. μmax.=.10,000–20,000. and. larger. coercivity.
`
`Hc.=.20–100.A/m.because.impurities.such.as.C,.Mn,.P,.S,.
`N,.and.O.impede.the.domain.wall.motion..By.annealing.
`such.material.in.hydrogen.at.1200°C–1500°C,.it.is.possi-
`ble.to.remove.most.of.these.impurities.but.such.process.
`is.also.quite.expensive.
`Pure.iron.has.low.resistivity.ρ.=.10.μΩ.cm.(in.compari-
`son.with.45.μΩ.cm.of.GO.SiFe.and.140.μΩ.cm.of.amor-
`phous. material).. Such. good. conductivity. causes. large.
`eddy. current. loss. and. practically. precludes. pure. iron.
`from.AC.application.
`
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`

`120
`
`Handbook of Magnetic Measurements
`
`Price (Euro/kg)
`
`Amorphous (Co)
`
`Nano
`
`FeNiMo
`
`Amorphous (Fe)
`
`FeNi
`
`FeSi-HiB
`FeSi-GO
`
`FeNiCr
`
`Co90Fe
`
`Co50Fe
`
`Fe-Co
`Fe, FeSi6
`FeCr
`
`FeSi-NO
`
`Fe-C
`
`1
`
`10
`
`100
`
`Hc (A/m)
`
`1000
`
`100
`
`10
`
`1
`
`0.1
`0.1
`
`FIGURE 3.6
`Diversity.of.soft.magnetic.materials..(After.Waecklerle,.T.,.Materiaux.magnetiques.doux.speciaux.et.applications,.in.Materiaux magnetiques en
`genie electrique I,.Kedous-Lebouc,.A..(Ed.),.Lavoisier,.Chapter.3,.pp..153–223,.2006.)
`
`B (T)
`
`1.5
`
`1
`
`0.5
`
`Fe 99.99%
`
`Fe 99.9%
`
`Fe (0.1% C)
`
`100
`
`200
`
`300
`
`400
`
`H (A/m)
`
`FIGURE 3.7
`Magnetization. curves. of. iron.. (After. McCurrie,. R.A.,. Ferromagnetic
`Materials,.Academic.Press,.London,.U.K.,.1994.)
`
`Both. problems—expensive. manufacturing. and. lim-
`ited. frequency. application—can. be. solved. if. we. use.
`the.same.material.in.form.of.a.powder.iron..This.mate-
`rial.is.manufactured.by.grinding.iron.(or.iron.alloys*).
`into.powder.with.dimension.of.particles.5–200.μm.and.
`next.by.pressing.this.powder.with.insulating.material..
`Resistivity.of.such.material.is.of.the.order.of.ρ.=.104.μΩ.
`cm.and.therefore.it.can.be.used.in.high-frequency.range.
`to.100.kHz.(specially.prepared.NiFe.powder.to.100.MHz).
`(Kazimierczuk.2009).
`Instead. of. cheap. pressing,. most. often. sintering.
`.technology. is. used,. which. results. in. better. magnetic.
`performances.of.the.powder.materials.(Table.3.3).
`As.a.material.for.powder.iron.cores,.most.commonly,.
`carbonyl. iron. is. used.. Technology. of. obtaining. extra.
`pure. iron. powder. from. iron. pentacarbonyl,. Fe(CO)5,.
`was.developed.in.1925.by.BASF.Company..By.thermal.
`
`decomposition. of. iron. pentacarbonyl,. it. is. possible. to.
`produce. 99.8%. pure. iron. powder. with. spherical. parti-
`cles.ranging.from.1.to.8.μm.
`Although. the. presence. of. carbon. significantly. dete-
`riorate. magnetic. properties. of. iron. (Figures. 3.6. and.
`3.7),.low-carbon.steel.is.widely.used.as.magnetic.mate-
`rial. mainly. due. to. its. low. price. (Figure. 3.6). and. good.
`mechanical. properties.. As. “low-carbon”. steel. it. is.
`assumed. the. material. with. following:. C,. 0.04%–0.06%;.
`P,.0.05%–0.15%;.Mn,.0.35%–0.8%;.S,.0.006%–0.025%;.and.
`Si,. 0.05%–0.25%.. Although. the. magnetic. properties.
`of. low-carbon. electrical. steel. are. rather. poor,. they. are.
`acceptable. for. many. cheap. devices,. like. small. motors,.
`relays,. or. electromechanical. mechanisms.. Figure. 3.9.
`presents.the.part.of.phase.diagram.of.Fe-C.alloys.
`Iron.exists.in.two.allotropic.forms:.α-Fe.(ferrite.Fe-C).
`ferromagnetic. body-centered. cubic. and. γ-Fe. (austenite.
`Fe-C). paramagnetic. face-centered. cubic.. Above. 0.008%.
`of. C. in. ferrite. appears. as. impurity. cementite. (iron. car-
`bide,.Fe3C).that.above.210°C.is.nonmagnetic..Transition.
`between.α-Fe.and.γ-Fe.is.at.910°C,†.but.also.ferrite.is.para-
`magnetic.above.Curie.temperature.768°C.
`
`TABLE 3.3
`DC.Magnetic.Properties.of.Powder.
`Material
`
`B.at.8000.A/m
`Br.from.8000.A/m
`Hc.from.8000.A/m
`μmax
`Source:. Bularzik,.J.H..et.al.,.J. Phys.,.8,.Pr2-747,.
`1998.
`
`Sintered
`1.75.T
`0.93.T
`80.A/m
`7000
`
`Pressed
`1.65.T
`0.34.T
`192.A/m
`800
`
`*. In.powder.materials.also.other.substances,.like.NiFe.or.Sendust.are.
`used.
`
`†. Above.1538°C.iron.again.is.ferromagnetic.in.body-centered.cubic.
`structure.known.as.δ-Fe.
`
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`

`Magnetic Materials
`
`121
`
`addition.of.Si.and.Goss.texture..The.first.invention.was.
`proposed.by.Robert.Hadfield.in.1902.(Barret.et.al..1902).
`and.patented.in.1903.(Hadfield.1903)..The.second.inven-
`tion.was.patented.by.Norman.Goss.in.1934.(Goss.1934).
`and.described.in.1935.(Goss.1935).
`As.discussed.earlier,.one.of.the.most.important.draw-
`backs. of. pure. iron. is. its. relatively. low. resistivity. and.
`hence.large.eddy.current.loss..Figure.3.10.presents.the.
`resistivity.of.different.iron.alloys..We.can.see.that.good.
`candidates. for. resistivity. improvement. are. silicon. and.
`aluminum.. Addition. of. silicon. influences. also. satura-
`tion.polarization.and.Curie.temperature.(both.of.which.
`decrease.with.silicon.content;.see.Figure.3.11).
`From.Figure.3.11,.the.best.would.be.6.5%.content.of.Si.
`because. resistivity. increases. almost. sevenfold. and. the.
`material. is. non-magnetostrictive.. Unfortunately,. this.
`material. is. very. hard. and. brittle,. what. is. disadvanta-
`geous.in.rolling.process.as.well.as.in.punching.the.final.
`product..In.practice,.punching.can.be.carried.out.only.
`for. the. steel. with. up. to. 3%–4%. silicon. content.. Large.
`content.of.Si.causes.also.decrease.of.saturation.polariza-
`tion.as.well.as.the.permeability..Therefore,.the.GO.sili-
`con.steel.is.manufactured.mostly.often.with.2.7%–3.3%.
`of.silicon.although.also.6.5%.SiFe.is.offered.in.the.mar-
`ket.(in.small.volume.and.for.higher.price).
`Figure.3.12.presents.part.of.a.phase.diagram.of.iron–
`silicon..The.transition.between.α-Fe.and.γ-Fe.is.at.911°C..
`For.silicon.content.higher.than.1.86%,.this.transition.no.
`longer.takes.place.and.it.is.possible.to.anneal.the.mate-
`rial.to.high.temperatures.for.removal.of.parasitic.impu-
`rities..The.most.unwanted.components.in.SiFe.steel.are.
`carbon,.oxide,.sulfur,.and.nitrogen.because.even.small.
`amounts. of. this. element. cause. increase. of. hysteresis.
`loss..Therefore,.the.starting.material.should.be.as.pure.
`as. possible. and. after. manufacturing,. the. content. of.
`these.elements.can.be.smaller.than.10.ppm.
`Figure.3.13.presents.typical.route.of.production.of.GO.
`SiFe..The.Goss.invention.is.a.method.of.developing.of.a.
`grain.texture..By.suitable.combination.of.annealing.and.
`
`Low-carbon steel
`
`FeSi NO
`
`Pressed iron
`
`0.4
`
`0.2
`
`Power loss per cycle (W/kg/Hz)
`
`200
`
`400
`
`f (Hz)
`
`FIGURE 3.8
`Losses. of. various. iron-based. materials.. (After. Bularzik,. J.H.. et. al.,.
`J. Phys.,.8,.Pr2-747,.1998.)
`
`alloys.
`are. Fe-Co-based.
`important.
`Especially.
`Fe50Co50 (known.as.Permendur).that.exhibit.the.larg-
`est. possible. saturation. polarization. JS.=.2.46.T. and.
`very. high. Curie. temperature. (Tc.=.930°C).. To. improve.
`mechanical.properties.of.FeCo.alloy.(and.increase.resis-
`tivity.ρ.=.40.μΩ.cm),.a.small.part.of.vanadium.is.added:.
`Fe49Co49V2.. The. alloy. Fe6Co94. has. very. high. Curie.
`temperature. (Tc.=.950°C). (pure. cobalt. has. Tc.=.1130°C)..
`Table.3.4..collects.magnetic.properties.of.iron.and.some.
`of.its.alloys.
`
`3.2 Silicon Iron Electrical Steel
`3.2.1 Conventional Grain-Oriented SiFe Steel
`As.presented.in.Figure.2.25,.two.inventions.were.ground.
`breaking.in.history.of.improvement.of.electrical.steels:.
`
`Temperature
`
`α + γ
`
`α – Fe
`α + Fe3C
`
`910
`Tc =768
`723
`
`Tc= 210
`
`0.008
`0.025
`
`FIGURE 3.9
`Iron–carbon.phase.diagram.
`
`γ – Fe
`
`γ + Fe3C
`
`α + Fe3C + Pearlite
`
`0.83
`
`Fe3C + Pearlite
`
`%C
`
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`

`122
`
`Handbook of Magnetic Measurements
`
`1392
`
`γ – Fe, FCC
`
`1.56
`
`1.86
`
`α + γ
`
`911
`768
`
`α – Fe, BCC
`
`Tc
`
`1.0
`
`2.0
`
`%Si
`
`1400
`
`1200
`
`1000
`
`800
`
`Temperature (°C)
`
`FIGURE 3.12
`Iron–silicon.phase.diagram.
`
`direction. (Figure. 2.14).. Therefore,. the. main. effort. is.
`made. to. obtain. the. best. Goss. texture. with. relatively.
`large.grains.ordered.in.one.direction..Figure.3.15.pres-
`ents. dependence. of. flux. density. and. loss. on. the. tilt.
`angle.. Surprisingly,. the. minimum. of. the. loss. occurs.
`when.the.grain.are.slightly.misoriented.from.the.per-
`fect. .direction.. The. best. results. are. obtained. for. the.
`grain.orientation.of.about.2°.
`The.data.from.Figure.3.15.can.be.partially.explained.
`by.results.of.domain.investigations.presented.in.Figures.
`3.16. and. 3.17.. Perfectly. oriented. grains. (0°). have. wider.
`spacing.of.the.180°.domain.walls.than.for.a.tilt.angle.2°..
`This.domain.width.strongly.influences.excess.loss.(see.
`Figure. 2.118).. The. domain. wall. spacing. can. be. signifi-
`cantly.decreased.by.applying.a.stress,.which.is.one.of.
`the.methods.known.as.a.domain.refinement.
`After.the.first.annealing.in.production.process.(Figure.
`3.13),. the. grain. dimensions. are. only. around. 0.02.mm..
`After. second. annealing. (secondary. recrystallization),.
`the.Goss-oriented.grains.grow.through.the.thickness.of.
`the.sheet.to.diameter.3–7.mm.with.average.misorienta-
`tion.of.around.6°.
`Theoretically,.as.larger.grains.as.better,.but.measure-
`ments.of.loss.versus.grain.dimensions.did.not.confirm.
`such. a. simple. relationship.. Indeed. domain. observa-
`tions. confirm. that. large. grains. have. a. wide. domain.
`spacing. (Beckley. 2000).. This. is. why. usually. grain.
`diameter. in. conventional. GO. steel. does. not. exceed.
`about.8.mm.
`Excellent.properties.along.rolling.direction.are.advan-
`tageous.when.we.can.guarantee.that.magnetization.is.
`applied. only. in. this. direction.. But. this. advantage. can.
`be.a.problem.when.a.part.is.magnetized.not.exactly.in.
`the. rolling. direction. (e.g.,. corners. of. a. square. core).. In.
`such.a.case,.we.have.to.expect.significant.deterioration.
`of. the. material. performance.. Figure. 3.18. presents. the.
`
`TABLE 3.4
`Performances.of.Iron.and.Iron-Alloy.Materials
`μmax ×1000
`J1 (T)
`Hc (A/m)
`2.15
`230
`4
`2.15
`4–20
`20–100
`2.15
`20
`6
`2.4
`3
`200
`Power.loss.5.5–10.W/kg.at.1.5.T,.
`50.Hz
`
`99.95.Iron
`Iron.(commercially)
`Carbonyl.(powder)
`CoFe2%V.(Permendur)
`Low-carbon.steel.C,.
`0.04%–0.06%
`
`Silicon
`
`Aluminum
`
`M anganese
`
`C o p per
`N i
`
`l
`
`e
`
`k
`
`c
`
`Cobalt
`
`0.5
`
`1.0
`Percent of element in iron
`
`1.5
`
`20
`
`15
`
`10
`
`Resistivity (mW cm)
`
`FIGURE 3.10
`Resistivity.of.different.iron.alloys.
`
`Js (T)
`
`Resistivity (µΩ cm)
`
`2.2
`
`2.0
`
`1.8
`
`60
`
`40
`
`20
`
`Saturation polarization
`Curie temperature
`R esistivity
`
`Magnetostriction
`
`2
`
`4
`
`6
`
`% Si
`
`800
`
`750
`
`700
`
`Tc (°C)
`
`20×10–8
`
`λs
`
`0
`
`FIGURE 3.11
`Magnetic.and.electrical.parameters.as.a.function.of.silicon.content.
`
`cold.rolling,.the.grains.having.[001].direction.in.the.roll-
`ing.direction.and.(110).plane.close.to.the.sheet.plane.are.
`privileged.to.grow..In.the.meantime,.the.inhibitor.man-
`ganese. sulfide. (MnS). suppresses. the. growth. of. other.
`grains..Figure.3.14.presents.the.example.of.grain.struc-
`ture.of.GO.electrical.steel.
`In. a. grain-oriented. steel,. we. profit. from. its. aniso-
`tropic. properties. of. the. fact. that. the. iron. crystal.
`have. the. best. magnetic. properties. in. “easy”. [100].
`
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`Magnetic Materials
`
`123
`
`Hot rolled 3.2% SiFe, 2–2.5 mm thick, small amount of MnS
`
`Pickled to remove surface oxides, side trim
`
`Cold roll to thickness around 0.6 mm
`
`Annealing at about 950°C to recrystalize and soften material
`
`Cold roll to final thickness around 0.23–0.3 mm
`
`Anneal/decarburize at about 840°C in wet hydrogen, coat with magnesium oxide
`
`24 h box annealing at about 1200°C in dry hydrogen for secondary
`recrystallization and remove sulfur, nitrogen, and oxygen
`
`Annealing at 800°C for flattening, remove excess MgO, and final coating
`
`Domain rafinement, coil up, and side trim
`
`FIGURE 3.13
`Production.route.of.grain-oriented.silicon.iron..(From.Moses,.A.J.,.IEE Proc.,.137,.233,.1990.)
`
`power. loss. at. 1.5.T. notexceeding. 0.97.W/kg.*. Table  3.5.
`presents.examples.of.GO.electrical.steel.according.to.EN.
`Standard.10107.
`Figure.3.19.presents.parameters.of.a.typical.GO.SiFe.
`steel.grade.M089–27N.and.Table.3.6.presents.an.exam-
`ple.of.the.measured.results.for.a.similar.steel.sample.(as.
`measured.by.Epstein.method).
`
`3.2.2 HiB Grain-Oriented Electrical Steel
`The. conventional. GO. SiFe. steel. has. Goss. texture. [001].
`(110). with. grain. orientation. dispersion. (tilt. angle). of.
`about.6°..In.1965,.Nippon.Steel.Corporation.developed.
`new. technology. for. production. of. improved. GO. SiFe.
`steel. (Taguchi. and. Sakakura. 1964,. 1969,. Yamamoto. et.
`al.. 1972).. After. addition. of. around. 0.025%. aluminum.
`to. the. starting. melt,. the. recrystallization. process. was.
`
`*. Unfortunately. different. countries. often. use. different. standards:.
`ASTM. A876M. (American. Society. for. Testing. and. Materials),.
`JIS. C2553. (Japanese. Industrial. Standard),. AISI. classification.
`(American. Iron. and. Steel. Institute),. IEC. 60404-8-7. (International.
`Electrotechnical. Commission).. But. all. standards. of. classifica-
`tion. use. the. same. parameters:. power. loss,. thickness,. and. type.
`of. material.. For. example,. Japanese Standard. classify. GO. steel. as:.
`Z,. normal;. ZH,. HiB. steel;. ZDKH,. with. laser. domain. refinement..
`For. example,. 30ZH100. means. HiB. steel. of. thickness. 0.3.mm. and.
`power. loss. at. 1.7.T/50.Hz. not. exceeding. 1.W/kg.. According. to.
`American. Standard. 30P154M. means. steel. of. thickness. 0.3.mm.
`and.power.loss.at.1.7.T./60.Hz.not.exceeding.1.54.W/kg.(or.accord-
`ing.to.Standard.ASTM.A876.it.is.equivalent.to.30P070.what.means.
`thickness.0.3.mm.and.power.loss.1.7.T/60.Hz.not.exceeding.0.7.W/
`lb)..Moreover,.there.are.many.different.Company.names,.as.ORSI.
`(Thyssen),.ORIENTCORE.(Nippon.Steel),.etc..which.can.use.their.
`own.classification.
`
`FIGURE 3.14
`The.example.of.typical.grain.structure.of.GO.steel:.in.the.left.part,.an.
`incompletely.recrystallized.line.is.visible.
`
`magnetization.curve.and.losses.determined.for.various.
`directions.of.magnetization.(Tumanski.2002).
`Electrical.GO.steel.is.classified.according.to.interna-
`tional. standards. based. on. the. power. loss.. European.
`standard.EN.10107.uses.the.following.nomenclature.for.
`the.steel.grades:
`
`a..First.letter.M.for.electrical.steel.
`.
`. b..Three.digits.after.the.first.letter.denote.value.of.
`specific.loss.measured.at.1.5.or.1.7.T.
`c..Two.further.digits.represent.the.thickness.
`.
`. d..Last.letter.describes.type.of.material:.N,.normal.
`(loss.measured.at.1.5.T),.S,.reduced.loss.(loss.at.
`1.7.T);.P,.high.permeability.(loss.at.1.7.T).
`
`For.example,.M097-30N.means.electrical.steel.(M).of.nor-
`mal.grade.(N).with.material.thickness.0.3.mm.(30).and.
`
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`124
`
`Handbook of Magnetic Measurements
`
`2.0
`
`1.8
`
`1.6
`
`B800 (T)
`
`P(1.7/50) (W/kg)
`
`1.4
`
`1.2
`
`1.0
`
`Tilt angle
`
`5
`
`10
`
`15
`
`2
`
`4
`
`Tilt angle
`6
`
`FIGURE 3.15
`Flux.density.and.core.loss.versus.the.tilt.angle..(After.Littmann,.M.F.,.J. Appl. Phys.,.38,.1104,.1967;.Littmann,.M.F.,.IEEE Trans. Magn.,.7,.48,.1971;.
`Littman,.M.F.,.J. Magn. Magn. Mater.,.26,.1,.1982;.Nozawa,.T..et.al.,.IEEE Trans. Magn.,.14,.252,.1978.)
`
`enhanced.due.to.aluminum.nitride.AlN.acting.as.inhib-
`itor.. The. production. route. was. simplified;. hot. rolled.
`material.was.initially.annealed.at.1100°C.in.N2.and.in.
`one.cycle.cold.rolled.to.final.thickness..After.that.con-
`ventional. procedure. was. performed,. decarburization,.
`batch.annealing.for.recrystallization.at.1200°C,.and.final.
`annealing.at.800°C.are.carried.out.
`As.a.result,.a.new.class.of.material.with.more.perfect.
`texture.was.obtained:.a.tilt.angle.was.on.average.2°–3°.
`and.grain.dimensions.exceeding.10.mm..This.material.
`
`Bmax (T)
`
`0°
`
`5°15°
`
`30°
`
`45°
`
`55°
`
`90°
`
`200
`
`400
`
`600
`
`M089-27 N
`800
`Hmax (A/m)
`
`P (W/kg)
`
`90°
`
`55°
`
`30°
`
`15°
`
`0°
`
`1.5
`
`1.0
`
`0.5
`
`1.5
`
`1.0
`
`0.5
`
`σ = 1.5 kg/mm2
`
`0.8
`
`0.6
`
`0.4
`
`0.2
`
`Average domain wall spacing (mm)
`
`2
`
`4
`Tilt angle
`
`FIGURE 3.16
`Dependence.of.average.domain.wall.spacing.on.the.tilt.angle..(After.
`Nozawa,.T..et.al.,.IEEE Trans. Magn.,.14,.252,.1978.)
`
`θ = 0°, 2L/d = 5.7
`
`θ = 0°, σ = 13.8 MPa, 2L/d = 3.1
`
`θ = 2°, 2L/d = 1.6
`
`θ = 2°, σ = 13.8 MPa, 2L/d = 0.6
`
`FIGURE 3.17
`Domain.structure.of.3%.FeSi.crystals.(θ,.tilt.angle;.2 L,.domain.wall.
`spacing;.d,.thickness)..(After.Shilling,.J.W..et.al.,.IEEE Trans. Magn.,.14,.
`104,.1978;.1978a.)
`
`0.5
`
`1.0
`
`M089-27 N
`Bmax (T)
`
`1.5
`
`FIGURE 3.18
`Properties.of.the.GO.SiFe.steel.in.different.directions.of.magnetiza-
`tion.(with.respect.to.the.rolling.direction)..(From.Tumanski,.S.,.2002.)
`
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`

`Magnetic Materials
`
`125
`
`TABLE 3.5
`Classification.of.Electrical.Steel.according.to.Standard.EN.
`10107
`
`TABLE 3.6
`Example.of.the.Measured.Results.for.a.Typical.GO.SiFe.
`Steel—Grade:.M089-27N
`
`Thickness
`(mm)
`
`Loss at
`1.5 T, 50 Hz
`(W/kg)
`
`Loss at
`1.7 T, 50 Hz
`(W/kg)
`
`Polarization
`for 800 A/m
`(T)
`
`Name
`
`Normal material
`M080-23N
`M089-27N
`M097-30N
`M111-35N
`
`0.23
`0.27
`0.30
`0.35
`
`Material with reduced loss
`M120-23S
`0.23
`M130-27S
`0.27
`M140-30S
`0.30
`M150-35S
`0.35
`
`0.80
`0.89
`0.97
`1.11
`
`0.77
`0.85
`0.92
`1.05
`
`Material with high permeability (HiB)
`M100-23P
`0.23
`M103-27P
`0.27
`M105-30P
`0.30
`M111-30P
`0.30
`M117-30P
`0.30
`
`1.27
`1.40
`1.50
`1.65
`
`1.20
`1.30
`1.40
`1.50
`
`1.00
`1.03
`1.05
`1.11
`1.17
`
`1.75
`1.75
`1.75
`1.75
`
`1.78
`1.78
`1.78
`1.78
`
`1.85
`1.88
`1.88
`1.88
`1.85
`
`Jmax (T)
`0.1
`0.2
`0.3
`0.4
`0.5
`0.6
`0.7
`0.8
`0.9
`1.0
`1.1
`1.2
`1.3
`1.4
`1.5
`1.6
`1.7
`1.8
`1.9
`
`Br (T)
`0.048
`0.136
`0.189
`0.262
`0.343
`0.433
`0.530
`0.629
`0.735
`0.846
`0.959
`1.076
`1.180
`1.302
`1.407
`1.511
`1.620
`1.685
`1.726
`
`Hmax (A/m)
`4.2
`6.7
`8.9
`10.7
`12.4
`14.1
`15.6
`17.0
`18.4
`19.6
`21.3
`23.0
`25.8
`31.1
`40.4
`62.0
`132.8
`455.8
`1767.3
`
`Hc (A/m)
`2
`4
`6
`8
`9
`11
`12
`13
`15
`16
`17
`18
`19
`20
`21
`22
`24
`27
`33
`
`1.0
`
`10
`
`P (W/kg)
`
`10°
`
`μ
`18,800
`23,600
`26,700
`29,500
`31,900
`33,700
`35,700
`37,400
`38,900
`40,500
`41,000
`41,400
`40,000
`35,800
`29,500
`20,500
`10,200
`3,100
`900
`
`P (W/kg)
`
`0.016
`0.034
`0.060
`0.091
`0.129
`0.174
`0.224
`0.281
`0.345
`0.417
`0.495
`0.582
`0.684
`0.802
`0.952
`1.189
`1.590
`2.026
`
`10°
`
`0.1
`J (T)
`
`M089-27 N
`
`P
`
`1.5
`
`1.0
`
`0.5
`1.0
`
`µ
`
`50,000
`
`25,000
`
`J
`
`µ
`
`10
`
`100
`
`H (A/m)
`
`Conventional SiFe steel
`
`HiB SiFe steel
`
`FIGURE 3.20
`Pole.figures.for.the.(100).plane..(From.Yamamoto,.T..et.al.,.IEEE Trans.
`Magn.,.8,.677,.1972.)
`
`FIGURE 3.19
`Parameters.of.the.typical.GO.SiFe.steel-grade:.M089-27N.
`
`exhibits. significantly. lower. losses. at. higher. polariza-
`tion. (above. 1.7.T),. which. in. turn. could. be. achieved. at.
`significantly.lower.magnetic.field.strength..This.steel.is.
`known.as.high-permeability.material.(HiB)..Figure.3.20.
`presents.comparison.of.pole.figures.determined.for.HiB.
`and.conventional.steel.
`Similar. new. technology. was. introduced. in. 1973. by.
`Kawasaki. Steel. with. inhibitor. MnSe.+.Sb. and. in. 1975.
`by.Allogheny.Ludlum.Steel.Corporation.used.boron.as.
`inhibitor.. The. Kawasaki. technology. has. two. cycles. of.
`cold.rolling.(Goto.et.al..1975,.Fiedler.1977).
`It.should.be.noted.that.the.better.performance.of.the.
`HiB. steel. is. especially. evident. for. high. polarization.
`
`(as the.name.suggests)..For.small.polarization,.the.HiB.
`steel. does. not. really. offer. any. advantages;. sometimes.
`this. material. can. be. comparable. or. even. worse. than. a.
`conventional.steel..Table.3.7.presents.an.example.of.the.
`measurement. results. for. HiB. steel. sample. (by. Epstein.
`method)..Figure.3.21.presents.the.typical.parameters.of.
`HiB.steel.
`As. discussed. above. in. the. previous. section. (see.
`Figures.3.15.through.3.17),.the.effect.of.perfect.grain.ori-
`entation. can. be. weakened. by. wide. domain. wall. spac-
`ing..Therefore,.the.HiB.steel.is.often.produced.with.the.
`support. of. the. domain. refinement. tools:. laser. scratch-
`ing,.plasma.jest.irradiation,.spark.ablation,.groove.mak-
`ing,. chemical. treatment,. or. coating. stress. (Nozawa. et.
`al..1978,.1979,.1996,.Fukuda.et.al..1981,.Iuchi.et.al..1982,.
`
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`

`126
`
`Handbook of Magnetic Measurements
`
`TABLE 3.7
`Example.of.the.Results.of.Measurements.for.a.Typical.HiB.
`GO.SiFe.Steel—Grade:.M100-23P
`
`Jmax (T)
`0.1
`0.2
`0.3
`0.4
`0.5
`0.6
`0.7
`0.8
`0.9
`1.0
`1.1
`1.2
`1.3
`1.4
`1.5
`1.6
`1.7
`1.8
`1.9
`
`0.1
`J (T)
`
`1.5
`
`1.0
`
`0.5
`1.0
`
`Br (T)
`0.054
`0.142
`0.210
`0.287
`0.378
`0.479
`0.572
`0.676
`0.774
`0.885
`0.999
`1.069
`1.205
`1.302
`1.418
`1.527
`1.622
`1.732
`1.783
`
`Hmax (A/m)
`2.9
`5.3
`7.2
`8.9
`10.6
`11.7
`13.2
`14.5
`15.5
`17.0
`18.4
`18.5
`20.8
`23.4
`28.1
`38.4
`64.6
`185.5
`1155.0
`
`Hc (A/m)
`1.9
`3.7
`5.1
`6.6
`8.0
`9.4
`10.9
`12.3
`13.6
`14.9
`15.9
`18.0
`18.2
`18.80
`19.8
`20.6
`21.8
`24.2
`30.3
`
`P (W/kg)
`
`0.014
`0.031
`0.054
`0.083
`0.117
`0.157
`0.203
`0.256
`0.314
`0.379
`0.467
`0.534
`0.622
`0.720
`0.839
`0.999
`1.301
`1.827
`
`μ
`27,300
`29,800
`33.200
`35,600
`37,500
`40,700
`42,200
`43,900
`46,000
`46,800
`47,700
`51,700
`49,800
`47,700
`42,500
`33,200
`20,900
`7,700
`1,300
`
`1.0
`
`M100 - 23P
`
`10
`
`J
`
`P (W/kg)
`
`µ
`
`P
`
`50,000
`
`25,000
`
`µ
`
`10
`
`100
`
`H (A/m)
`
`FIGURE 3.21
`Parameters. of. the. HiB. GO. SiFe. steel-grade:. M100-23P. (thin. cur