Michael Zyda
`USC Information Sciences Institute
`
`Leveraging technology
`from the visual
`simulation and virtual
`reality communities,
`serious games provide
`a delivery system for
`organizational video
`game instruction and
`training.
`
`P E R S P E C T I V E S
`
`From Visual
`Simulation to
`Virtual Reality
`to Games
`During the past two decades, the virtual reality community has
`
`based its development on a synthesis of earlier work in inter-
`active 3D graphics, user interfaces, and visual simulation.1
`Doing so let developers create a more open technology than
`the visual simulation community could, increased the number
`of people working in 3D, and developed a science, technology, and lan-
`guage considerably beyond that of the earlier field.
`Beginning in 1997 with the publication of an NRC report titled “Modeling
`and Simulation—Linking Entertainment and Defense,”2 the video game com-
`munity has pushed into spaces previously the domain of the VR community.
`Clearly, the VR field is transitioning into work influenced by video games
`and thus now influences that industry as well. Because much of the research
`and development being conducted in the games community parallels the VR
`community’s efforts, it has the potential to affect a greater audience.
`Given these trends, VR researchers who want their work to remain rele-
`vant must realign to focus on game research and development. Research in
`the games arena affects not just the entertainment industry but also the gov-
`ernment and corporate organizations that could benefit from the training,
`simulation, and education opportunities that serious games provide.
`
`DEFINING SERIOUS GAMES
`People respond differently to the emotionally charged term game depend-
`ing on whether they played or did not play video games while growing up.
`This is basically a generation-gap issue because children who have grown
`up since the 1980s have been exposed to video games their entire lives.
`Before we can seriously tackle the issue of what a games research agenda
`might be, we must define what the term means. Dictionaries tend to define
`a game as a physical or mental contest, played according to specific rules,
`with the goal of amusing or rewarding the participants. When seeking a def-
`inition of the more specific term video game, we are likely to encounter a
`description such as “a game played against a computer,” which would more
`accurately be worded as “a game played with a computer.” To fully flesh
`out this definition, we might propose the following: “Video game: a mental
`contest, played with a computer according to certain rules for amusement,
`recreation, or winning a stake.”
`
`0018-9162/05/$20.00 © 2005 IEEE
`
`P u b l i s h e d b y t h e I E E E C o m p u t e r S o c i e t y
`
`September 2005
`
`25
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`

`

`Figure 1. From game
`to serious game.
`Unlike their enter-
`tainment-only coun-
`terparts, serious
`games use pedagogy
`to infuse instruction
`into the game play
`experience.
`
`Game
`
`Story
`
`Design
`team
`
`Game
`
`Art
`
`Art
`team
`
`Software
`
`Programming
`team
`
`Serious
`game
`
`Pedagogy
`
`Human performance
`engineering team
`
`Pedagogy
`subordinate
`of story
`
`Close
`working
`relationship
`
`Developing a science of games opens up a huge
`potential for the wider application of games in gov-
`ernmental and corporate arenas. The formal defi-
`nition might read as follows: “Serious game: a
`mental contest, played with a computer in accor-
`dance with specific rules, that uses entertainment
`to further government or corporate training, edu-
`cation, health, public policy, and strategic commu-
`nication objectives.”
`Bing Gordon, chief creative officer of video and
`computer games developer Electronic Arts, once
`told me that he defines video games as “story, art,
`and software.”
`When designing a game, the development team
`blends these elements into a finished product. The
`design team crafts the story, which provides the
`game’s entertainment component. The art team
`provides the game’s look and feel. The program-
`ming team develops the code that implements story
`requirements, interface features, networking, Web
`connectivity, scoring systems, AI scripting, game
`engine changes, and just about anything technical
`or programmatic that the entire development effort
`requires.3
`Serious games have more than just story, art, and
`software, however. As Figure 1 shows, they involve
`pedagogy: activities that educate or instruct,
`thereby imparting knowledge or skill. This addi-
`tion makes games serious. Pedagogy must, how-
`ever, be subordinate to story—the entertainment
`component comes first. Once it’s worked out, the
`pedagogy follows.
`A human-performance engineering team works
`closely with the design team to oversee this peda-
`gogy insertion. The team’s lead is part instructional
`
`scientist and part subject-matter expert for the
`domain around which the teams are building the
`serious game.
`Building serious games takes more than simply
`handing their development to a traditional game
`team, however. The team must interact with the
`instructional scientists and subject matter experts
`that comprise the human-performance-engineering
`team. To thrive, this new organization must have a
`university’s facilities and support or similar research
`organization. A research agenda that supports seri-
`ous games also benefits the entertainment industry,
`one of the US’s largest economic sectors.
`
`CREATING A SCIENCE OF GAMES
`The development and wide release of the
`America’s Army game began a revolution in think-
`ing about the potential role of video games for
`nonentertainment domains. It also sparked a dis-
`cussion about how to advance game technology’s
`state of the art to support future entertainment and
`serious games.4 This, in turn, promoted interest in
`creating a science of games and an allied educa-
`tional program. Experiences with digital-game
`natives—those who have grown up playing
`games—indicated that a game-centered research
`and educational program could offer many posi-
`tive benefits. While much speculation regarding
`these benefits is anecdotal, substantive evidence
`shows that game experiences affect digital-game
`natives positively. If researchers construct and per-
`form their studies carefully, they may be able to har-
`ness these positive affects for societal gain.
`The announcement of America’s Army, shown
`in Figure 2, at the 2002 Electronics Entertainment
`
`26
`
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`
`Niantic's Exhibit No. 1032 - Page 002
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`

`

`Expo prompted the US Army to commission a
`study of the game to see if it could be used for train-
`ing. In the summer of 2002, a US Army captain
`from Fort Benning, who was tasked with spending
`about a week playing the game, reported that he
`was unimpressed. Although he deemed the game a
`good recruiting tool, he indicated that there “was
`insufficient fidelity in the game for it to be of any
`use in training.”
`Cyberpunk author William Gibson once noted
`that the street finds its own uses for things.5 We saw
`this effect in action in October 2002, when a staff
`sergeant from Fort Benning approached the
`America’s Army booth at the Army’s annual AUSA
`Conference in Washington, DC. An enthusiastic
`gamer who had played America’s Army from day
`one, he and told the staff, “We love this game at
`Benning. We use it for training.”
`The sergeant had bypassed the Army’s require-
`ments documents and formal studies and deployed
`the game on his own initiative. He went on to
`explain that when new recruits had trouble with
`the rifle range or the obstacle course, his team had
`those recruits play America’s Army and required
`them to complete those levels in the game, as shown
`in Figure 3. When the recruits did so, they then
`went back to the range and usually passed the range
`tests. This made us wonder what other applications
`would benefit from game-based instruction—espe-
`cially after we developed a revised version of
`America’s Army with new levels for a variety of
`Department of Defense, Army, and Secret Service
`training needs.
`Six to nine months after its release, mothers
`would meet me and complain that “my son is play-
`ing America’s Army five to six hours a day, seven
`days a week. What is going to become of him?” I
`would usually answer that these children would be
`twice as likely to consider a career in the US Army
`as those who didn’t play the game, something the
`Army counts on with respect to the game’s recruit-
`ing mission. When I asked the mothers if their chil-
`dren knew a lot about the US Army, the mothers
`usually responded that “they know everything
`about the Army, having learned it from the game.
`Wouldn’t it be nice if playing games could teach
`them something more useful?”
`These comments led us to wonder how much of
`K-12 science and math education could be taught
`via games and how we might exploit students’
`capability for collateral learning—the learning that
`happens by some mechanism other than formal
`teaching. Ultimately, we wondered if we could
`incorporate all K-12 science and math education
`
`Figure 2. America’s Army. The most widely used and successful serious game to
`date, this title initially served as a recruiting tool.
`
`Figure 3. Training simulator. Despite the initial evaluator’s skepticism, America’s
`Army proved to be an effective military training simulator. Soldiers who played
`the rifle range segment of the game, for example, earned improved scores on the
`real-life rifle range.
`
`in a highly immersive, highly addictive game—we
`called this our “first person education” grand chal-
`lenge, a play on the phrase “first person shooter”.6
`Given the many anecdotes about digital-game
`natives being better surgeons and displaying excep-
`tional business skills, it became clear that creating
`a science of games—a scientific and engineering
`method for building them and understanding and
`analyzing game play—had become essential.
`
`September 2005
`
`27
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`

`

`The America’s Army
`has made some
`attempts to broaden
`first-person-shooter
`game engine reuse
`to other domains,
`but all such uses
`have suffered from
`major limitations.
`
`GAME PRODUCTION CHALLENGES
`Today, game production poses some
`incredible challenges. Teams come together
`to build a single game, then dissolve. Training
`times on game engine toolsets increase
`steadily. Code modules, crafted for specific
`games, offer less than 30 percent reuse in sub-
`sequent efforts. First-person shooters are cur-
`rently the only games that have reusable
`engines. These engines are proprietary, how-
`ever, used for a few games only, licensed at
`exorbitant expense, cost more than $6 mil-
`lion, and take more than a year to develop.
`Game production times increase steadily as
`graphics cards provide more visual capabil-
`ities and the game-playing public demands more
`interactivity and verisimilitude.
`The demand for better computer characters and
`story increases with the complexity of visual dis-
`plays and with the release of each new, more com-
`plex-than-ever game. Game play innovation is
`becoming a competitive necessity. The big hits have
`been sports, first-person shooters, adventure, and
`Sims-type games. For the game industry to continue
`to grow, additional genres must become more
`sophisticated, with better backstories and thor-
`oughly researched, developed, and deployed foun-
`dational game-play technologies.
`The game-playing public is becoming ever more
`enamored of portable entertainment platforms, and
`computing speeds are becoming ever faster. These
`trends pose the critical challenge of providing well-
`designed interfaces, ever-increasing storage capac-
`ity, and expanded wireless network bandwidth.
`Efficient streaming of content to wireless portable
`devices and for game downloads from the Web will
`also become priorities.
`
`GAMES RESEARCH AGENDA
`To influence the future of both serious and enter-
`tainment games, developers must create a research
`and development agenda that transforms the game
`production process from a handcrafted, labor-
`intensive effort to one with shorter, more pre-
`dictable production timelines that still manage to
`provide innovations and increased complexity. This
`research agenda has three components: the infra-
`structure, cognitive game design, and immersion.
`
`Infrastructure
`The underlying software and hardware necessary
`for developing interactive games include massively
`multiplayer online game architectures, game
`engines and tools, streaming media, next-genera-
`
`tion consoles, and wireless and mobile devices.
`Many application domains use massively multi-
`player online game architectures, including the mil-
`itary, security and homeland defense, and online
`education. MMOGs pose the fundamental research
`question of how to develop dynamically extensible
`and semantically interoperable software architec-
`tures. This functionality requires building game or
`simulation clients that can connect to a running
`MMOG, download the appropriate code for dis-
`play and interaction, then operate with other online
`players. This work, of interest to gaming in gen-
`eral, has special relevance for the large govern-
`mental game-based simulation sector.
`Currently, only static solutions that dramatically
`drive up the cost of large-scale simulation and gam-
`ing have been developed—no dynamic solutions
`are available. Developers must solve the MMOG
`architecture problem not just for game clients but
`also for large-scale computational architectures
`such as grid computing. Game engines and tools
`will be vital to researchers bent on attacking the
`lack-of-reuse problem in gaming. They can also
`provide the technology for moving games from
`crafted systems built by the game industry gnomes
`to engineered systems used widely in the govern-
`ment and corporate sectors.
`The America’s Army project has made some
`attempts to broaden first-person-shooter game
`engine reuse to other domains, but all such uses
`have suffered from major limitations.3 For example,
`many game engines lack support for large terrain
`boxes and can only handle a 1 km × 1 km area even
`though most real-world applications require much
`larger spaces. Other limitations include onerous
`and expensive game-engine licenses and the gen-
`eral unavailability of these engines for R&D and
`to the serious games community at large.
`Thus, developers need an open source game
`engine that includes a development toolset as
`widely available and utilized as Linux. With an
`open source engine, developers could explore addi-
`tional capabilities, including a larger terrain box,
`dynamic terrain, physical modeling, and other
`requirements that the entertainment world ignores.
`In addition, an open source engine would make fea-
`sible exploring many other directions, including the
`modeling and simulation of computer characters,
`story, and human emotion.
`Streaming media will play a prominent role in
`the delivery of dynamic content to PC-based games
`and mobile devices. This will gain more importance
`in games as computing becomes smaller, faster, and
`more capable. In turn, these developments will
`
`28
`
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`
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`

`

`encourage research into the proper interfaces for
`such devices and in determining how to best deploy
`them for serious and entertainment purposes.
`
`Cognitive game design
`Taking a cognitive approach to game develop-
`ment will give developers the tools to create theo-
`ries and methods for
`
`• modeling and simulating computer characters,
`story, and human emotion;
`• analyzing large-scale game play;
`• innovating new game genres and play styles;
`and
`• integrating pedagogy with story in the inter-
`active game medium.
`
`Computer-generated autonomy involves model-
`ing human and organizational behavior in net-
`worked games, for example, deploying the
`technology from a game like The Sims for a seri-
`ous purpose, such as a training aid for nursing.
`Developers can use this approach to model and
`simulate hospital operations in game form, pro-
`viding an immersive experience for the nurse
`trainee.
`Creating a compelling computer-generated story
`has long been a game development challenge. To
`overcome this challenge, developers must compu-
`tationally model story by deploying engines and
`tool suites that dramatically simplify the construc-
`tion of networked game storylines.
`The modeling and simulation of human emotion
`lies at the frontier of networked games and simu-
`lations. For the entertainment world, the future of
`gaming includes developing an experience so
`immersive that it engages the players’ emotions on
`a visceral level. The military, homeland security,
`defense, and hospital trauma sectors need a similar
`game-based simulation capability that spans the
`spectrum of entertainment and serious game devel-
`opers. This capability must be thoroughly
`researched to determine in advance its potential
`human impact.
`Understanding and analysis will play a key role
`in the games research agenda. When researchers
`place humans in large-scale MMOGs or single-
`player modules, they must determine what happens
`during game play and how the experience affects
`the players. Current serious game usage and large-
`scale simulation require human monitors to watch
`networked play. When the game ends, the human
`monitor tells the researchers which team won and
`why.
`
`Defense, homeland
`security, and
`educational
`applications require
`automated analyses
`for gaming to make
`meaningful
`contributions to the
`serious game
`domain.
`
`To refine this process, developers must
`acquire an automated understanding and
`analysis capability that can generate a high-
`level report of what happened during game
`play over a specified period, from a particu-
`lar viewpoint, with the option to query the
`system for additional detailed information.
`Several defense, homeland security, and edu-
`cational applications require such automated
`analyses if gaming is to make meaningful con-
`tributions to the serious game domain. In
`addition, the entertainment industry might
`find such analyses useful as a marketing and
`game-refinement tool.
`Pedagogy and story integration involve
`determining theories and developing prac-
`tices for inserting learning opportunities into story,
`such that participants find the story immersive and
`entertaining because the embedded instruction
`remains subordinate to it. The game industry has
`already witnessed the failure of edutainment, an
`awkward combination of educational software
`lightly sprinkled with game-like interfaces and cute
`dialog. This failure shows that story must come
`first and that research must focus on combining
`instruction with story creation and the game devel-
`opment process.
`
`Immersion
`Creating technologies that engage the game
`player’s mind via sensory stimulation and provid-
`ing methods for increasing the sense of presence
`contribute to building a feeling of immersion. This
`work includes:
`
`• computer graphics, sound, and haptics;
`• affective computing—sensing human state and
`emotion; and
`• advanced user interfaces.
`
`Sensory channel research plays a fundamental
`role in games technology. As they develop more
`capable graphics engines, researchers need to know
`how to appropriately use that new capability for
`serious games as well as how to generate new tech-
`nology that industry can put into the next-genera-
`tion graphics chipsets it provides.
`Spatial and immersive sound are key components
`for whatever training and educational systems
`researchers build with gaming. Developers must
`implement future engineering requirements and
`human-performance engineering to ensure that they
`can employ sound appropriately and effectively
`while minimizing cross-modal sensory conflicts.
`
`September 2005
`
`29
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`

`

`Figure 4. Broad
`application
`spectrum. Serious-
`game methodology
`can be applied to
`domains as diverse
`as healthcare,
`defense, human per-
`formance engineer-
`ing, and game evalu-
`ation.
`
`Serious games and simulations:
`developing a theory for the deployment of games and simulations for
`purposes of education and training; human performance engineering;
`applications of games to health, public policy and strategic
`communication; game evaluation; serious game development.
`
`Serious
`games
`
`Game
`evaluation
`
`Education
`
`Health
`
`Public policy
`
`Strategic
`communication
`
`Human performance
`engineering
`
`Training and
`simulation
`
`Mission
`rehearsal
`
`Virtual
`fallujah
`
`Combat modeling
`and analysis
`
`Nation
`building
`
`Network centric
`warfare
`
`Sensors, information
`sharing, agents and
`interoperability
`
`Space
`war
`
`Haptics, another key research area, takes games
`into the tactile realm. Considering that the R&D
`work they are doing now might be implemented in
`technology the game industry deploys in the next
`10 to 20 years, developers will need to work dili-
`gently to continually improve sensory stimulation.
`Affective computing measures a person’s physi-
`cal and emotional state. In the next two years, low-
`cost sensors will become available that measure a
`player’s emotional state and provide this informa-
`tion as input when running a game. Software devel-
`opment kits that read those devices and transmit
`the player’s emotional state to the game will need
`to be developed. In turn, the game must be able to
`use that state along with many other inputs and
`respond appropriately. Although this capability will
`have a major impact, at this point developers do
`not really know how this process will work, partly
`because they lack good models of human emotions
`and of how computer characters should react to
`them.
`Game designers must understand these things if
`they are to engineer and implement these capabil-
`ities so that these features behave predictably and
`reliably. This type of research effort could broaden
`the scope of both entertainment and serious games.
`Ultimately, a video game may not only make us cry,
`
`it may be aware that we are crying and respond
`appropriately.
`Developers use presence to measure the immer-
`sive experience of a game player or virtual reality
`explorer. Whether building a virtual reality envi-
`ronment or a game, developers attempt to provide
`the illusion that they have entered a virtual world.
`Ultimately, developers must be able to engineer
`presence so reliably and convincingly that game
`makers can author such worlds a priori for the
`immersive experience rather than just hoping the
`developed world will be convincingly engaging.
`Advanced user interfaces will become key as
`computing moves from the standard desktop PC
`to mobile platforms. Much can be gained by
`studying how the game industry has developed
`almost universal interfaces that let gamers transi-
`tion seamlessly from, for example, playing Quake
`to playing Unreal Tournament. To make signifi-
`cant progress in deploying serious games, devel-
`opers must understand interfaces from the game
`perspective.
`
`SERIOUS GAMES
`Applying games and simulations technology to
`non-entertainment domains results in serious
`games. As Figure 4 shows, this work includes:
`
`30
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`

`Educational Programs
`
`The USC Viterbi School of Engineering has several degree
`programs that work with the GamePipe Laboratory, including
`an MS and BS in game development and a game development
`minors program. These degree programs have been developed
`jointly with the Department of Computer Science, the School
`of Cinema’s Interactive Media Program, and the School of
`Engineering’s Information Technology Program.
`
`BS and MS programs
`The BS program seeks to educate students so that they can
`engineer next-generation games immediately upon graduation.
`Students receive a solid grounding in computer science in addi-
`tion to the art and design expertise required for functioning in
`the game industry. This program offers the School of Cinema’s
`core game design sequence: programming for interactivity, 3D
`game design workshop, and intermediate game design work-
`shop. This sequence of design courses also functions as a series
`of deficiency courses for the MS in Game Development, ensur-
`ing that our BS and MS programs match up and that our MS
`candidates entering from other universities receive the proper
`remediation.
`The interdisciplinary MS in Game Development program
`strives to graduate professionally educated students who can
`engineer next-generation games and their required technolo-
`gies. The program has a computer science MS core—analysis
`of algorithms, game AI, and computer graphics and rendering.
`This is followed by a game development core of game mechan-
`ics design and development, game engine programming, and
`game hardware architectures.
`Once they complete the computer science and game devel-
`opment cores, students select a concentration area and take
`two courses in it. The concentration areas are infrastructure,
`
`cognition and games, immersion, and serious games. The
`course offerings supporting each area allow considerable vari-
`ability in the educational programs.
`Students complete the MS by taking a three-credit advanced-
`game-project course in each of the last two semesters. These
`courses have students integrate and apply gained knowledge
`on a significant game development effort that they then demon-
`strate the week before graduation. In addition to this advanced
`game project focus, the majority of courses in this MS program
`encourage students to collaborate in groups.
`
`Game development minors programs
`The Viterbi School of Engineering offers an undergraduate
`minors program in game development under the Information
`Technology Program. The program consists of three minors:
`video game programming, video game design and management,
`and 3D animation. This program adds six courses of game
`development material to the undergraduate curriculum. During
`the 2004-2005 school year, this program had about 600 stu-
`dents enrolled. Students in this program learn the industry-
`standard tools for the production of games through small
`in-class projects.
`
`Sponsored projects
`Sponsored game development projects form part of both the
`GamePipe Laboratory’s educational program and its research
`and development component. By offering an organized pipeline
`for student intern labor, similar to that used in the game devel-
`opment industry, USC attracts significant funding from indus-
`try and governmental agencies. Having the ability to
`experiment with and build full games and game prototypes is
`a capability unique to the USC educational program.
`
`• development across all application domains:
`healthcare, public policy, strategic communi-
`cation, defense, training and education;
`• human performance engineering; and
`• game evaluation.
`
`A new phenomenon in the video game world,
`serious-game development could potentially eclipse
`the entertainment world in size if developers per-
`form the proper research when building this impor-
`tant area. Serious games use entertainment
`principles, creativity, and technology to build games
`that carry out a government or corporate objective.
`Moving toward making serious games requires
`human-performance engineering—developing prin-
`ciples, processes, and procedures for their deploy-
`ment. Researchers must have training and
`
`education objectives for their serious game, and
`they must understand how to use the entertainment
`world’s creativity with appropriate human-perfor-
`mance engineering principles.
`
`GAMEPIPE LABORATORY
`The first serious games must be constructed in
`carefully controlled university environments. The
`“Educational Programs” sidebar describes the cur-
`ricula developed at the University of Southern
`California to advance work in serious and enter-
`tainment games. The USC Viterbi School of
`Engineering has formed the interdisciplinary
`GamePipe Laboratory to research, develop, and
`teach the technologies necessary for creating future
`interactive games and their application,. The labo-
`ratory’s mission is to research and develop inter-
`
`September 2005
`
`31
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`

`

`active games technologies that dramatically shorten
`the production timeline, provide supporting tech-
`nologies for increasing the complexity and inno-
`vation in produced games, and enable the creation
`of serious and entertainment games for government
`and corporate sponsors.
`The GamePipe Laboratory performs the research
`and development required for next-generation
`game production. It produces serious games and
`game prototypes as sponsored projects. It also links
`with, directs, and develops educational programs in
`game development and game-related research and
`builds cross-campus interdisciplinary teams to solve
`next-generation game technology and development
`problems.
`
`B y performing the research and development
`
`required for the future of interactive games
`in a university environment, developers have
`the potential to influence not just the future of inter-
`active entertainment but also the future of interac-
`tive training, education, and simulation—and,
`ultimately, the future of all serious-game develop-
`ment and deployment. With the formation of the
`GamePipe Laboratory and allied educational pro-
`grams, USC has taken the first step toward that
`future. ■
`
`References
`1. N. Durlach and A. Mavor, eds., Virtual Reality: Sci-
`entific and Technological Challenges, Committee on
`
`Virtual Reality Research and Development, National
`Academy Press, 1995.
`2. M. Zyda and J. Sheehan, eds., Modeling and Simu-
`lation: Linking Entertainment & Defense, National
`Academy Press, 1997; http://books.nap.edu/cata-
`log/5830.html.
`3. M. Zyda et al., “From Viz-Sim to VR to Games: How
`We Built a Hit Game-Based Simulation,” Organiza-
`tional Simulation: From Modeling & Simulation to
`Games & Entertainment, W.B. Rouse and K.R. Boff,
`eds., Wiley Press, 2005, pp. 553-590.
`4. MOVES Institute and the US Army, America’s Army
`PC Game—Vision and Realization, 2004;
`http://gamepipe.isi.edu/~zyda/pubs/YerbaBuenaAA-
`Booklet2004.pdf.
`5. W. Gibson, Neuromancer, Ace Books, 1984.
`6. M. Zyda and D. Bennett, “The Last Teacher,” 2020
`Visions, US Dept. of Commerce, 2002;
`http://gamepipe.isi.edu/~zyda/pubs/2020Visions.pdf.
`
`Michael Zyda is director of the USC Viterbi School
`of Engineering’s GamePipe Laboratory, located at
`the Information Sciences Institute, Marina del Rey,
`California. His research interests include computer
`graphics; large-scale, networked 3D virtual envi-
`ronments; modeling human and organizational
`behavior; interactive computer-generated story,
`modeling and simulation; and interactive games.
`Zyda holds a lifetime appointment as a National
`Associate of the National Academies. He received
`a DSc in computer science from Washington Uni-
`versity, St. Louis. Contact him at zyda@isi.edu.
`
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`Niantic's Exhibit No. 1032 - Page 008
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