Global Positioning System:
`Theory and Applications
`Volume 2
`
`Edited by
`Bradford W. Parkinson
`Stanford University, Stanford, California
`James J. Spilker Jr.
`Stanford Telecom, Sunnyvale, California
`
`Associated Editors:
`Penina Axelrad
`University of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado
`Per Enge
`Stanford University, Stanford, California
`
`Volume 164
`PROGRESS IN
`ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS
`
`Paul Zarchan, Editor-in-Chief
`Charles Stark Draper Laboratory, Inc.
`Cambridge, Massachusetts
`
`Published by the
`American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Inc.
`370 L'Enfant Promenade, SW, Washington, DC 20024-2518
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`Third Printing
`
`Copyright © 1996 by the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Inc. Printed in the United
`States of America. All rights reserved. Reproduction or translation of any part of this work beyond that
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`Preface
`
`Overview and Purpose of These Volumes
`Of all the military developments fostered by the recent cold war, the Global
`Positioning System (GPS) may prove to have the greatest positive impact on
`everyday life. One can imagine a 21st century world covered by an augmented
`GPS and laced with mobile digital communications in which aircraft and other
`vehicles travel through "virtual tunnels," imaginary tracks through space which
`are continuously optimized for weather, traffic, and other conditions. Robotic
`vehicles perform all sorts of construction, transportation, mining, and earth mov-
`ing functions working day and night with no need for rest. Low-cost personal
`navigators are as commonplace as hand calculators, and every cellular telephone
`and personnel communicator includes a GPS navigator. These are some of the
`potential positive impacts of GPS for the future. Our purpose in creating this
`book is to increase that positive impact. That is, to accelerate the understanding
`of the GPS system and encourage new and innovative applications.
`The intended readers and users of the volumes include all those who seek
`knowledge of GPS techniques, capabilities, and limitations:
`• Students attending formal or informal courses
`• Practicing GPS engineers
`• Applications engineers
`• Managers who wish to improve their understanding of the system
`Our somewhat immodest hope is that this book will become a standard reference
`for the understanding of the GPS system.
`Each chapter is authored by an individual or group of individuals who are
`recognized as world-class authorities in their area of GPS. Use of many authors
`has led to some overlap in the subject matter which we believe is positive. This
`variety of viewpoints can promote understanding and contributes to our overall
`purpose. Books written by several authors also must contend with variations in
`notation. The editors of the volume have developed common notations for the
`important subjects of GPS theory and analysis, and attempted to extend this,
`where possible, to other chapters. Where there are minor inconsistencies we ask
`for your understanding.
`
`Organization of the Volumes
`The two volumes are intended to be complementary. Volume I concentrates
`on fundamentals and Volume II on applications. Volume I is divided into two
`parts: the first deals with the operation and theory of basic GPS, the second
`section with GPS performance and errors. In Part I (GPS Fundamentals), a
`summary of GPS history leads to later chapters which promote an initial under-
`
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`standing of the three GPS segments: User, Satellite, and Control. Even the best
`of systems has its limitations, and GPS is no exception. Part II, GPS Performance
`and Error Effects, is introduced with an overview of the errors, followed by
`chapters devoted to each of the individual error sources.
`Volume II concentrates on two aspects: augmentations to GPS and detailed
`descriptions of applications. It consists of Parts III to VI:
`• III. Differential GPS and Integrity Monitoring
`• IV. Integrated Navigation Systems
`• V. GPS Navigation Applications
`• VI. Special Applications
`Parts III and IV expand on GPS with explanations of supplements and augmen-
`tations to the system. The supplements enhance accuracy, availability, or integrity.
`Of special interest is differential GPS which has proven it can provide sub-meter
`(even centimeter) level accuracies in a dynamic environment. The last two sections
`(V and VI) are detailed descriptions of the major applications in current use. In
`the rapidly expanding world of GPS, new uses are being found all of the time.
`We sincerely hope that these volumes will accelerate such new discoveries.
`
`Acknowledgments
`Obviously this book is a group undertaking with many, many individuals
`deserving of our sincere thanks. In addition to the individual authors, we would
`especially like to thank Ms. Lee Gamma, Mr. Sam Pullen, and Ms. Denise Nunes.
`In addition, we would like to thank Mr. Gaylord Green, Dr. Nick Talbot, Dr.
`Gary Lennon, Ms. Penny Sorensen, Mr. Konstantin Gromov, Dr. Todd Walter,
`and Mr. Y. C. Chao.
`
`Special Acknowledgment
`We would like to give special acknowledgment to the members of the original
`GPS Joint Program Office, their supporting contractors and the original set of
`engineers and scientists at the Aerospace Corporation and at the Naval Research
`Laboratory. Without their tenacity, energy, and foresight GPS would not be.
`
`B. W. Parkinson
`J. J. Spilker Jr.
`P. Axelrad
`P. Enge
`
`
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`Table of Contents
`
`Preface
`
`................................................................^^
`
`xxxi
`
`Part III. Differential GPS and Integrity Monitoring
`
`Chapter 1. Differential GPS ...................................................................... 3
`Bradford W. Parkinson and Per K. Enge, Stanford University,
`Stanford, California
`
`Introduction ................................................................................................................... 3
`Standard Positioning Service Users .......................................................................... 3
`Precise Positioning Service Users ............................................................................ 4
`Major Categories of Differential GPS ...................................................................... 4
`Code-Phase Differential GPS ....................................................................................... 7
`User Errors Without Differential GPS ..................................................................... 7
`Reference Station Calculation of Corrections .......................................................... 10
`Application of Reference Correction ........................................................................ 11
`Analysis of Differential GPS Errors ............................................................................ 11
`Receiver Noise, Interference, and Multipath Errors for Differential GPS ............. 12
`Satellite Clock Errors for Differential GPS ............................................................. 16
`Satellite Ephemeris Errors for Differential GPS ...................................................... 17
`Ionospheric Errors for Differential GPS .................................................................. 20
`Troposhere Errors for Differential GPS ................................................................... 23
`Local Area Differential GPS Error Summary .......................................................... 24
`Carrier-Phase Differential GPS ..................................................................................... 27
`Attitude Determination .............................................................................................. 27
`Static and Kinematic Survey .................................................................................... 28
`Near Instantaneous Determination of Integers ......................................................... 30
`Radio Technical Commission for Maritime Services Data Format for Differential
`GPS Data ............................................................................................................... 31
`Radio Technical Commission for Maritime Services Message Types 1, 2, and 9 . 32
`Types 18, 19, 20, and 21 Messages ..................................................................... 34
`Datalinks ........................................................................................................................ 34
`Groundwave Systems ................................................................................................ 34
`VHP and UHF Networks .......................................................................................... 36
`Mobile Satellite Communications ............................................................................ 39
`Differential GPS Field Results ..................................................................................... 41
`Short-Range Differential Code-Phase Results ......................................................... 41
`Long-Range Differential Code-Phase Results .......................................................... 42
`Dynamic Differential Carrier-Phase Results ............................................................ 43
`Conclusions ................................................................................................................... 47
`
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`Appendix: Differential GPS Ephemeris Correction Errors Caused by Geographic
`Separation .................................................................................................................. 47
`References ..................................................................................................................... 49
`
`Chapter 2. Pseudolites ................................................................................ 51
`Bryant D. Elrod, Stanford Telecom, Inc., Reston, Virginia
`and A. J. Van Dierendonck, AJ Systems, Los Altos, California
`
`Introduction ................................................................................................................... 51
`Pseudolite Signal Design Considerations ..................................................................... 52
`Previous Pseudolite Designs ..................................................................................... 52
`New Pseudolite Signal Design ................................................................................. 53
`Integrated Differential GPS/Pseudolite Considerations ............................................... 57
`Pseudolite Siting ........................................................................................................ 57
`Pseudolite Time Synchronization ............................................................................. 58
`User Aircraft Antenna Location ............................................................................... 62
`Pseudolite Signal Data Message ............................................................................... 63
`GPS/Pseudolite Navigation Filter Considerations .................................................... 64
`Pseudolite Testing ......................................................................................................... 65
`Pseudolite Interference Testing ................................................................................. 65
`Pseudolite Data Link Testing .................................................................................... 67
`Navigation Performance Testing .............................................................................. 68
`Appendix A: Interference Caused by Cross Correlation Between C/A Codes .......... 70
`Appendix B: Interference Caused by Pseudolite Signal Level ................................... 74
`Appendix C: Navigation Filter Modeling with Pseudolite Measurements ................. 76
`References ..................................................................................................................... 78
`
`Chapter 3. Wide Area Differential GPS .................................................. 81
`Changdon Kee, Stanford University, Stanford, California
`
`Introduction ................................................................................................................... 81
`Wide Area Differential GPS Architecture and Categories .......................................... 82
`Wide Area Differential GPS Architecture ................................................................ 82
`Wide Area Differential GPS Categories .................................................................. 85
`User Message Content and Format .......................................................................... 87
`Error Budget .............................................................................................................. 88
`Master Station Error Modeling ..................................................................................... 88
`Ionospheric Time Delay Model for Algorithms A or B ......................................... 89
`Ephemeris and Satellite Clock Errors for Algorithms A, B, or C .......................... 92
`Simulation of Algorithm B ........................................................................................... 95
`Simulation Modules .................................................................................................. 95
`Ionospheric Error Estimation Results ....................................................................... 100
`Navigation Performance ............................................................................................ 101
`Summary of Results .................................................................................................. 104
`Test Using Field Data to Evaluate Algorithm C ......................................................... 104
`Locations of the Receiver Sites ................................................................................ 105
`Test Results ............................................................................................................... 105
`Latency and Age Concern ........................................................................................ I ll
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`Conclusion ..................................................................................................................... 112
`References ..................................................................................................................... 114
`
`Chapter 4. Wide Area Augmentation System ......................................... 117
`Per K. Enge, Stanford University, Stanford, California and
`AJ. Van Dierendonck, AJ Systems, Los Altos, California
`
`Introduction ................................................................................................................... 117
`Signal Design ................................................................................................................ 120
`Link Budget and Noninterference with GPS ........................................................... 120
`Data Capacity ............................................................................................................ 123
`Loop Threshold ......................................................................................................... 124
`Ranging Function .......................................................................................................... 124
`Nonprecision Approach and Error Estimates ............................................................... 126
`Precision Approach and Vector Corrections ................................................................ 128
`Vector Corrections ..................................................................................................... 129
`Precision Approach Integrity .................................................................................... 130
`Wide Area Augmentation System Message Format .................................................... 131
`Parity Algorithm ........................................................................................................ 134
`Message Type 2 Fast Corrections and User Differential Range Errors .................. 135
`Type 25: Long-Term Satellite Error Corrections Message ...................................... 135
`Type 26: Ionospheric Delay Error Corrections Message ........................................ 136
`Type 9: WAAS Satellite Navigation Message ......................................................... 137
`Applied Range Accuracy Evaluation ....................................................................... 137
`Summary ........................................................................................................................ 138
`Appendix: Geostationary Satellite Ephemeris Estimation and Code-Phase Control ..139
`References ..................................................................................................................... 142
`
`Chapter 5. Receiver Autonomous Integrity Monitoring ........................ 143
`R. Grover Brown, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa
`
`History, Overview, and Definitions .............................................................................. 143
`Basic Snapshot Receiver Autonomous Integrity Monitoring Schemes and
`Equivalences .............................................................................................................. 145
`Range Comparison Method ...................................................................................... 146
`Least-Squares-Residuals Method .............................................................................. 147
`Parity Method ............................................................................................................ 148
`Maximum Separation of Solutions ........................................................................... 150
`Constant-Detection-Rate/Variable-Protection-Level Method ....^............................. 151
`Screening Out Poor Detection Geometries .................................................................. 152
`Receiver-Autonomous Integrity Monitoring Availability for Airborne Supplemental
`Navigation ................................................................................................................. 155
`Introduction to Aided Receiver-Autonomous Integrity Monitoring ............................ 156
`Failure Isolation and the Combined Problem of Failure Detection and Isolation ...... 158
`Introductory Remarks .............................................................................................. 158
`Parity Method and Failure Detection and Isolation ................................................. 158
`Calculation of the P Matrix ...................................................................................... 161
`Failure Detection and Exclusion Algorithm ............................................................ 163
`References ..................................................................................................................... 164
`
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`Part IV. Integrated Navigation Systems
`
`Chapter 6. Integration of GPS and Loran-C ..........................................169
`Per K. Enge, Stanford University, Stanford, California and F. van Graas,
`Ohio University, Athens, Ohio
`
`Introduction ................................................................................................................... 169
`Calibration of Loran Propagation Errors by GPS .................................................... 171
`Cross-Chain Synchronization of Loran-C Using GPS ............................................ 171
`Combining Pseudoranges from GPS and Loran-C for Air Navigation .................. 171
`Loran Overview ............................................................................................................ 172
`Calibration of Loran Propagation Errors by GPS ........................................................ 174
`Cross-Rate Synchronization of Loran .......................................................................... 176
`Combining GPS Pseudoranges with Loran Time Differences .................................... 179
`Navigation Equations ................................................................................................ 179
`Probability of Outage Results ................................................................................... 182
`Summary ........................................................................................................................ 184
`References ..................................................................................................................... 185
`
`Chapter 7. GPS and Inertial Integration ................................................187
`R. L. Greenspan, Charles Stark Draper Laboratories, Cambridge,
`Massachusetts
`
`Benefits of GPS/Inertial Integration ............................................................................. 187
`Operation During Outages ........................................................................................ 189
`Providing All Required Navigation Outputs ............................................................ 190
`Reduced Noise in GPS Navigation Solutions .......................................................... 190
`Increased Tolerance to Dynamics and Interference ................................................. 191
`GPS Integration Architectures and Algorithms ........................................................... 191
`Integration Architectures ........................................................................................... 191
`Integration Algorithms .............................................................................................. 194
`Embedded Systems ................................................................................................... 197
`Integration Case Studies ............................................................................................... 199
`GPS/Inertial Navigation Systems Navigation Performance in a Low-Dynamics
`Aircraft ...................................................................................................................... 199
`Using GPS for In-flight Alignment .......................................................................... 206
`Integrated Navigation Solutions During a GPS Outage .......................................... 213
`Summary ........................................................................................................................ 217
`References ..................................................................................................................... 218
`
`Chapter 8. Receiver Autonomous Integrity Monitoring Availability
`for GPS Augmented with Barometric Altimeter Aiding and
`Clock Coasting ...........................................................................................221
`Young C. Lee, MITRE Corporation, McLean, Virginia
`
`Introduction ................................................................................................................... 221
`Methods of Augmentations ........................................................................................... 222
`Augmented Geometry for Barometric Altimeter Aiding ......................................... 222
`Barometric Altimeter Aiding with GPS-Calibrates Pressure Altitude Data ........... 223
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`Barometric Altimeter Aiding with Local Pressure Input ........................................ 227
`Augmented Geometry for Clock Coasting ............................................................... 228
`Simultaneous Use of Barometric Altimeter Aiding and Clock ............................... 229
`Definitions of Function Availability ............................................................................. 229
`Navigation Function .................................................................................................. 229
`Receiver Autonomous Integrity Monitoring Detection Function ............................ 229
`Receiver Autonomous Integrity Monitoring Function ............................................. 230
`Results ........................................................................................................................... 230
`Parameters of Interest ............................................................................................... 230
`Discussion of Results ................................................................................................ 231
`Summary and Conclusions ........................................................................................... 235
`Appendix: Statistical Distribution of the Height Gradients ........................................ 239
`References ..................................................................................................................... 241
`
`Chapter 9. OPS and Global Navigation Satellite System
`(GLONASS) ...............................................
`Peter Daly, University of Leeds, Leeds, England, United Kingdom and
`Pratap N. Misra, Massachusetts Institute of Technology,
`Lexington, Massachusetts
`
`Introduction to the Global Navigation Satellite System .............................................. 243
`History of Satellite Navigation Systems .................................................................. 243
`Orbits ......................................................................................................................... 2
`History of Launches .................................................................................................. 247
`Signal Design ............................................................................................................ 248
`Message Content and Format ................................................................................... 252
`Satellite Ephemerides ................................................................................................ 253
`Satellite Almanacs ..................................................................................................... 254
`GPS/GLONASS Onboard Clocks ............................................................................ 255
`Performance of GLONASS and GPS + GLONASS .................................................. 258
`Introduction ............................................................................................................... 258
`Requirements of Civil Aviation ................................................................................ 259
`Integrated Use of GPS and GLONASS ................................................................... 260
`Performance of GLONASS and GPS and GLONASS ........................................... 261
`Summary ........................................................................................................................ 271
`Acknowledgments ......................................................................................................... 271
`References ..................................................................................................................... 271
`
`Part V. GPS Navigation Applications
`
`Chapter 10. Land Vehicle Navigation and Tracking ..............................275
`Robert L. French, R. L. French & Associates, Fort Worth, Texas
`
`Application Characteristics and Markets ...................................................................... 275
`Commercial Vehicle Tracking .................................................................................. 275
`Automobile Navigation and Route Guidance .......................................................... 277
`Intelligent Vehicle Highway Systems ....................................................................... 279
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`Historical Background .................................................................................................. 281
`Early Mechanical Systems ........................................................................................ 281
`Early Electronic Systems .......................................................................................... 282
`Enabling/Supporting Technologies ............................................................................... 283
`Dead Reckoning ........................................................................................................ 284
`Digital Road Maps .................................................................................................... 286
`Map Matching ........................................................................................................... 288
`Integration with GPS ................................................................................................ 291
`Mobile Data Communications .................................................................................. 292
`Examples of Integrated Systems .................................................................................. 294
`Etax Navigator™/Bosch Travelpilot™ ...................................................................... 294
`Toyota Electro-Multivision ....................................................................................... 296
`TravTek Driver Information System ........................................................................ 297
`NavTrax™ Fleet Management System ..................................................................... 298
`References ..................................................................................................................... 299
`
`Chapter 11. Marine Applications ..............................................................303
`Jim Sennott and In-Soo Ahn, Bradley University, Peoria, Illinois and
`Dave Pietras^ewski, United States Coast Guard Research and
`Development Center, Groton, Connecticut
`
`Marine Navigation Phases and Requirements .............................................................. 303
`Marine DGPS Background ........................................................................................... 304
`Global Positioning Systems-Assisted Steering, Risk Assessment, and Hazard Warning
`System .........................................................................................................