Modern Electric,
`Hybrid Electric, and
`Fuel Cell Vehicles
`
`
`
`Fundamentals, Theory, and Design
`
`Mehrdad Ehsani, Texas A&M University
`
`Yimin Gao. Texas A&M University
`
`Sebastien E. Gay, Texas A&M University
`
`A“ Emadi, Illinois Institute of Technology
`
`mm_m_.m_..=_....v.flames
`
`
`
`
`‘*7emu—L»--_.—.9
`
`‘_-
`
`BMW v. Paice, lPR2020-01386
`BMW1107
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`Page 1 of 26
`
`
`
`CRC PRESS
`
`
`Boca Raton London NewYork Washington, DC.
`
`WIW'flfl'VMvaMWW-—mv—<
`
`
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`

`
`
`,.,ag.;;.is.ililllillllllli
`
`.11.~09!
`
`
`
`Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
`
`Modern electric, hybrid electric, and fuel cell vehicles: fundamentals,
`theory, and design/Mehrdad Ehsani
`[et al.].
`p. cm. — (Power electronics and applications series)
`Includes bibliographical references and index.
`ISBN 0-8493-3154-4 (alk. paper)
`1. Hybrid electric vehicles. 2. Fuel cells.
`
`I. Ehsani, Mehrdad.
`
`11. Title.
`
`2004054249
`
`111. Series.
`
`TL221.15.G3~9 2004
`629.22’93—dc22
`
`:5;..
`
`This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources.
`Reprinted material is quoted with permission, and sources are indicated. A wide variety of ref-
`erences are listed. Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information,
`but the author and the publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials
`or for the consequences of their use.
`
`Neither this book nor any part may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means,
`electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or by any infor-
`mation storage or retrieval system, without prior permission in writing from the publisher.
`
`The consent of CRC Press LLC does not extend to copying for general distribution, for promo-
`tion, for creating new works, or for resale. Specific permission must be obtained in writing from
`CRC Press LLC for such c0pying.
`
`Direct all inquiries to CRC Press LLC, 2000 N.W. Corporate Blvd, Boca Raton, Florida 33431.
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`Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks,
`and are used only for identification and explanation, without intent to infringe.
`
`Visit the CRC Press Web site at www.crcpress.com
`
`© 2005 by CRC Press LLC
`No claim to original US. Government works
`
`International Standard Book Number 0-8493-3154-4
`Library of Congress Card Number 2004054249
`Printed in the United States of America 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0
`Printed on acid-free paper
`
`
`
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`

`
`
`m P
`
`reface
`
`The development of automobiles with heat engines is one of the greatest
`achievements of modern technology. However, the highly developed auto-
`motive industry and the large number of automobiles in use around the
`world have caused and are still causing serious problems for society and
`human life. Deterioration in air quality, global warming, and a decrease in
`petroleum resources are becoming the major threats to human beings. More
`and more stringent emissions and fuel consumption regulations are stimu—
`lating an interest in the development of safe, clean, and high-efficiency trans-
`portation. It has been well recognized that electric, hybrid electric, and fuel
`cell-powered drive train technologies are the most promising solutions to
`the problem of land transportation in the future.
`To meet the revolutionary challenge, an increasing number of North
`American and other engineering schools have started the academic disci-
`pline of advanced vehicle technologies in both undergraduate and graduate
`programs. In 1998, the principal author of this book shared his first lecture
`on ”Advanced Vehicle Technologies ~ Design Methodology of Electric and
`Hybrid Electric Vehicles” with graduate students in mechanical and electri-
`cal engineering at Texas A&M University. While preparing the lecture, it was
`found that although there is a wealth of information in technical papers and
`reports, there is as yet no comprehensive and integrated textbook or refer-
`ence for students. Furthermore, practicing engineers also need a systemati-
`cally integrated reference to understand the essentials of this new
`technology. This book aims to fill this gap. .
`The book deals with the fundamentals, theory, and design of conventional
`cars with internal combustion engines (ICES), electric vehicles (EVs), hybrid
`electric vehicles (HEVs), and fuel cell vehicles (FCVs). It comprehensively
`presents vehicle performance, configuration, control strategy, design
`methodology, modeling, and simulation for different conventional and mod-
`ern vehicles based on mathematical equations.
`This book includes vehicle system analysis, ICE-based drive trains, EV
`design, HEV configurations, electric propulsion systems, series/parallel/mild
`hybrid electric drive train design methodologies, energy storage systems,
`regenerative braking, fuel cells and their applications in vehicles, and fuel
`cell hybrid electric drive train design. It emphasizes the overall drive train
`system and not just specific components. The design methodology is
`described by step-by—step mathematical equations. Furthermore, in explaining
`the design methodology of each drive train, design examples are presented
`with simulation results.
`
`"Hm—w...—
`
`
`
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`

`
`
`on power and ene
`introduced in this
`
`In Chapter 11, i
`ter, different cont]
`
`ing force distribt
`energy in variou:
`recovered by rege
`In Chapter 12, c
`their operation p
`plies. Vehicular a}
`In Chapter 13,
`introduced. First,
`
`its operating prin
`the design metho
`fuel cell system, el
`example and its c.
`The material in
`
`undergraduate co
`ferent disciplines
`instructors have tl
`
`sections/chapters
`at Texas A&M Ur
`this text has been ‘
`received from the
`
`their help.
`This book is a]
`modern automoti
`
`ior undergraduati
`automotive-relate
`In addition to t]
`
`presented in this
`development by 1
`Systems Research
`members of the X
`Power Electronics
`
`and Mr. Peymen.
`and switched relL
`tance motor vibr
`from the PhD.
`<
`
`acknowledged. Ir
`to Prof. Hassan IV
`
`the manuscript at
`ity of the book.
`We would also
`
`whose proofreadi
`
`¥ é
`
`This book consists of 13 chapters. In Chapter 1, the social and environ-
`mental import of modern transportation is discussed. This mainly includes
`air pollution, global warming, and petroleum resource depletion associated
`with the development of modern transportation. In this chapter, the impact
`of future vehicle technologies on the oil supplies is analyzed. The results are
`helpful for the future development strategy of the next-generation vehicles.
`In addition,
`the development history of EV, HEV, and FCV is briefly
`reviewed.
`
`In Chapter 2, the basic understanding of vehicle performance, power
`source characteristics, transmission characteristics, and equations used to
`describe vehicle performance are provided. The main purpose of this chap-
`ter is to provide the basic knowledge that is necessary for understanding
`vehicular drive train design.
`In Chapter 3, the major operating characteristics of different heat engines
`are introduced. As the primary power source, the engine is the most impor-
`tant subsystem in conventional and hybrid drive train systems. A complete
`understanding of the characteristics of an engine is necessary for the design
`and control of conventional cars and HEVs.
`
`In Chapter 4, EVs are introduced. This chapter mainly addresses the
`design of electric propulsion systems and energy storage devices, the design
`of traction motor and transmission, the prediction of vehicle performance,
`and simulation.
`
`In Chapter 5, the basic concept of hybrid traction is established. Various
`configurations of HEVs are discussed, such as series hybrid, parallel hybrid,
`torque-coupling and speed-coupling hybrids, and other configurations. The
`major operating characteristics of these configurations are presented.
`In Chapter 6, several electric propulsion systems are introduced, including
`DC, AC, permanent magnet brushless DC, and switched reluctance motor
`drives. Their basic constructiOn, operating principles, and control and oper-
`ating characteristics are described from the traction application point of
`VleW.
`
`In Chapter 7, the design methodology of series hybrid electric drive trains
`is presented. This chapter focuses on the power design of engine and energy
`storage, design of traction motor, transmission characteristics, and control
`strategy. A design example is also provided.
`In Chapter 8, the design methodology of parallel hybrid electric drive
`trains is provided. This chapter includes driving pattern and mode analysis,
`control strategy, design of the major components (engine, energy storage,
`and transmission), and vehicle performance simulation.
`In Chapter 9, the design methodology of mild hybrid drive trains is intro-
`duced with two major configurations of parallel
`torque coupling and
`series—parallel, torque-speed coupling. This chapter focuses on operation
`analysis, control deve10pment, and simulation.
`In Chapter 10, different energy storage technologies are introduced
`including batteries, ultracapacitors, and flywheels. The discussion focuses
`
`
`
`
`
`“i
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`

`on power and energy capacities. The concept of hybrid energy storage is also
`introduced in this chapter.
`In Chapter 11, vehicular regenerative braking is introduced. In this chap-
`ter, different controls of regenerative braking are analyzed, including brak-
`ing force distribution on the front and rear wheels, amount of braking
`energy in various driving cycles, and the amount of energy that can be
`recovered by regenerative braking.
`In Chapter 12, different fuel cell systems are described, mainly focusing on
`their operation principles and characteristics, technologies, and fuel sup—
`plies. Vehicular applications of fuel cells are also explained.
`In Chapter 13, the systematic design of fuel cell hybrid drive trains is
`introduced. First, the concept of fuel cell hybrid vehicles is established. Then,
`its operating principles and control of the drive train are analyzed. Lastly,
`the design methodology is described, focusing on the power design of the
`fuel cell system, electric propulsion, and the energy storage system. A design
`example and its corresponding simulation verification are also provided.
`The material in this book is recommended for a graduate or senior-level
`undergraduate course. Depending on the background of the students in dif-
`ferent disciplines such as mechanical and electrical engineering, course
`instructors have the flexibility to choose the material or skip the introductory
`sections/chapters from the book for their lectures. This text has been taught
`at Texas A&M University as a graduate—level course. An earlier version of
`this text has been revised several times based on the comments and feedback
`
`whose proofreading and corrections have improved this text. In addition,
`
`received from the students in this course. We are grateful to our students for
`their help.
`This book is also an in-depth source and a comprehensive reference in
`modern automotive systems for engineers, practitioners, graduate and sen-
`ior undergraduate students, researchers, and managers who are working in
`automotive—related industries, government, and academia.
`In addition to the work by others, many of the technologies and advances
`presented in this book are the collection of many years of research and
`development by the authors and other members of the Advanced Vehicle
`Systems Research Program at Texas A&M University. We are grateful to all
`members of the Advanced Vehicle Systems Research group as well as the
`Power Electronics and Motor Drives group, especially Dr. Hyung-Woo Lee
`and Mr. Peymen Asadi, who made great contributions to the brushless DC
`and switched reluctance motor drive sections, respectively. Switched reluc-
`tance motor vibration, acoustic noise, and design sections draw heavily
`from the Ph.D. dissertation of Prof. Babak Fahimi, which is gratefully
`acknowledged. In addition, we would like to express our sincere gratitude
`to Prof. Hassan Moghbelli, who thoroughly reviewed the earlier version of
`the manuscript and provided his valuable suggestions to improve the qual-
`ity of the book.
`We would also like to express our sincere thanks to Mr. Glenn C. Krell,
`
`nviron-
`fludes
`ociated
`
`impact
`ults are
`ehicles.
`
`briefly
`
`power
`med to
`
`'5 chap-
`birding
`
`mgines
`impor-
`'mplete
`2 design
`
`as the
`gdesign
`mance,
`
`Various
`
`hybrid,
`EB. The
`
`finding
`; motor
`[I oper-
`Ioint of
`
`E trains
`
`energy
`control
`
`I: drive
`
`nalysis,
`image,
`
`'5 intro-
`
`mg and
`veration
`
`nduced
`focuses
`
`
`
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`

`
`
`
`
`we would like to acknowledge the efforts and assistance of the staff of CRC
`Press, especially Nora Konopka and Jeff Hall. Last but not least, we thank
`our families for their unconditional support and absolute understanding
`during the writing of this book.
`
`
`
`
`Mehrdad Ehsam‘
`Yimin Gao
`
`Sebastien E. Gay
`Ali Emadi
`
`
`
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`
`
`
`
`
`
`Contents
`
`1. Environmental Impact and History of Modern Transportation .............. 1
`1.1 Air Pollution ............................................................................................2
`
`1.1.1 Nitrogen Oxides ..........................................................................2
`1.1.2 Carbon Monoxide ........................................................................3
`
`1.1.3 Unburned Hydrocarbons ..........................................................3
`1.1.4 Other Pollutants ..........................................................................3
`
`1.2 Global Warming ......................................................................................4
`1.3 Petroleum Resources ..............................................................................5
`1.4
`Induced Costs .......................................................................................... 7
`
`1.5
`
`Importance of Different Transportation Development
`Strategies to Future Oil Supply ............................................................9
`1.6 History of Electric Vehicles .................................................................. 13
`1.7 History of Hybrid Electric Vehicles .................................................... 15
`1.8 History of Fuel Cell Vehicles .............................................................. 17
`References ........................................................................................................ 19
`
`2. Vehicle Fundamentals....................................................................................21
`
`2.1 General Description of Vehicle Movement ......................................22
`2.2 Vehicle Resistance ................................................................................23
`
`2.2.1 Rolling Resistance ....................................................................23
`2.2.2 Aerodynamic Drag ..................................................................25
`2.2.3 Grading Resistance ..................................................................26
`2.3 Dynamic Equation ................................................................................27
`2.4 Tire—Ground Adhesion and Maximum Tractive Effort 29
`
`2.5 Power Train Tractive Effort and Vehicle Speed ..............................31
`2.6 Vehicle Power Plant and Transmission Characteristics ..................33
`2.6.1 Power Plant Characteristics ....................................................34
`2.6.2 Transmission Characteristics ..................................................36
`2.6.2.1 Gear Transmission ....................................................37
`
`2.6.2.2 Hydrodynamic Transmission ..................................39
`2.6.2.3 Continuously Variable Transmission ......................43
`2.7 Vehicle Performance ............................................................................44
`
`2.7.1 Maximum Speed of a Vehicle ................................................45
`2.7.2 Gradeability ..............................................................................46
`
` 2.7.3 Acceleration Performance ......................................................46
`
`
`
`
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`

`portation have emphasized the development of high efficiency, clean, and
`
`CONTENTS
`1.1 Air Pollution ..................................................................................................2
`
`1.1.1 Nitrogen Oxides ................................................................................2
`1.1.2 Carbon Monoxide ............................................................................3
`
`1.1.3 Unburned Hydrocarbons ................................................................3
`1.1.4 Other Pollutants ................................................................................3
`
`1.2 Global Warming ............................................................................................4
`1.3 Petroleum Resources ....................................................................................5
`1.4
`Induced Costs ................................................................................................7
`1.5
`Importance of Different Transportation Development Strategies
`to Future Oil Supply.
`...9
`1.6 History of Electric Vehicles........................................................................13
`1.7 History of Hybrid Electric Vehicles .......................................................... 15
`1.8 History of Fuel Cell Vehicles ...................................................................... 17
`References .............................................................................................................. 18
`
`The deve10pment of internal combustion engine vehicles, especially auto—
`mobiles,
`is one of the greatest achievements of modern technology.
`Automobiles have made great contributions to the growth of modern soci—
`ety by satisfying many of its needs for mobility in everyday life. The rapid
`deve10pment of the automotive industry, unlike that of any other industry,
`has prompted the progress of human society from a primitive one to a highly
`developed industrial society. The automotive industry and the other indus-
`tries that serve it
`constitute the backbone of the word’s economy and
`employ the greatest share of the working population.
`However, the large number of automobiles in use around the world has
`caused and continues to cause serious problems for
`the environment and
`human life. Air pollution, global warming, and the rapid depletion of the
`Earth’s petroleum resources are now problems of paramount concern.
`In recent decades, the research and development activities related to trans-
`
`
`
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`1 E
`
`
`
`nvironmental Impact and History of
`Modern Transportation
`
`
`
`W~w«.a<u.1..........
`
`t::::::::§§2
`
`L_.......377
`mi........379
`L._.........379
`L—........381
`EH5 ......381
`i—........381
`.__........381
`_ ........383
`....
`....385
`
`.............387
`
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`

`2
`
`Modern Electric, Hybrid Electric, and Fuel Cell Vehicles
`
`Environmental lmpr
`
`
`
`safe transportation. Electric vehicles, hybrid electric vehicles, and fuel cell
`vehicles have been typically proposed to replace conventional vehicles in the
`near future.
`This chapter reviews the problems of air pollution, gas emissions causing
`global warming, and petroleum resource depletion. It also gives a brief
`review of the development of electric vehicles, hybrid electric vehicles, and
`fuel cell technology.
`
`——’———_—
`
`1.1 Air Pollution
`
`At present, all vehicles rely on the combustion of hydrocarbon fuels to
`derive the energy necessary for their propulsion. Combustion is a reaction
`between the fuel and the air that releases heat and combustion products. The
`heat is converted to mechanical power by an engine and the combustion
`products are released into the atmosphere. A hydrocarbon is a chemical
`compound with molecules made up of carbon and hydrogen atoms. Ideally,
`the combustion of a hydrocarbon yields only carbon dioxide and water,
`which do not harm the environment. Indeed, green plants ”digest” carbon
`dioxide by photosynthesis. Carbon dioxide is a necessary ingredient in veg-
`etal life. Animals do not suffer from breathing carbon dioxide unless its con-
`centration in air is such that oxygen is almost absent.
`Actually, the combustion of hydrocarbon fuel in combustion engines is
`never ideal. Besides carbon dioxide and water, the combustion products con—
`tain a certain amount of nitrogen oxides (N01), carbon monoxides (CO), and
`unburned hydrocarbons (HC), all of which are toxic to human health.
`
`1 .1.1
`
`Nitrogen Oxides
`
`Nitrogen oxides (NOx) result from the reaction between nitrogen in the air
`and oxygen. Theoretically, nitrogen is an inert gas. However, the high tem-
`peratures and pressures in engines create favorable conditions for the for-
`mation of nitrogen oxides. Temperature is by far the most important
`parameter in nitrogen oxide formation. The most commonly found nitrogen
`oxide is nitric oxide (NO), although small amounts of nitrogen dioxide
`(N02) and traces of nitrous oxide (N20) are also present. Once released into
`the atmosphere, NO reacts with oxygen to form N02. This is later decom-
`posed by the Sun’s ultraviolet radiation back to NO and highly reactive oxy-
`gen atoms that attack the membranes of living cells. Nitrogen dioxide is
`partly responsible for smog; its brownish color makes smog visible. It also
`reacts with atmospheric water to form nitric acid (HNOs), which dilutes in
`rain. This phenomenon is referred to as "acid rain” and is responsible for the
`destruction of forests in industrialized countries.1 Acid rain also contributes
`to the degradation of historical monuments made of marble.1
`
`
`
`
`
`1.1.2 Carbon M:
`
`Carbon monoxide
`due to a lack of c
`breathe it. Once c
`
`hemoglobin in plat
`reaches the organs
`living beings. Diz:
`which can rapidly
`hemoglobin than .
`tions cannot breal
`
`treated in pressu
`monoxide—hemog
`
`1.1.3 Unburned
`
`Unburned hydroc‘
`carbons} 2 Deper
`harmful to living
`direct poisons or
`others. Unburned
`ultraviolet radiatil
`
`atmosphere to for
`of three oxygen a1
`attacks the membi
`or to die. Toddler:
`
`exposure to high
`peaks in polluted
`
`1 .1 .4 Other Poll
`
`Impurities in fuel:
`sulfur, which is 1r
`natural gas.1 The 1
`gen sulfide) with
`the major product
`trioxide, which la
`nent of acid rain.
`
`from transportati<
`power plants and
`contribution of ne
`Petroleum com
`
`improve the per.
`referred to sirnplj
`gasoline and the]
`
`
`
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`

`icles
`
`cell
`1 the
`
`sing
`Jrief
`and
`
`tion
`The
`lion
`ical
`
`iter,
`bon
`
`Veg-
`.011-
`
`s is
`on-
`
`and
`
`:tes
`
`Environmental Impact and History ofModern Transportation
`
`3
`
`1.1.2 Carbon Monoxide
`
`Carbon monoxide results from the incomplete combustion of hydrocarbons
`due to a lack of oxygen.1 It is a poison to human and animal beings that
`breathe it. Once carbon monoxide reaches the blood cells, it fixes to the
`hemoglobin in place of oxygen, thus diminishing the quantity of oxygen that
`reaches the organs and reducing2 the physical and mental abilities of affected
`living beings. Dizziness is the first symptom of carbon monoxide poisoning,
`which can rapidly lead to death. Carbon monoxide binds more strongly to
`hemoglobin than oxygen. The bonds are so strong that normal body func-
`tions cannot break them. Persons intoxicated by carbon monoxide must be
`treated in pressurized chambers, where the pressure makes the carbon
`monoxide—hemoglobin bonds easier to break.
`
`1.1.3 Unburned Hydrocarbons
`
`Unburned hydrocarbons are a result of the incomplete combustion of hydro-
`carbons.1' 2 Depending on their nature, unburned hydrocarbons may be
`harmful to living beings.2 Some of these unburned hydrocarbons may be
`direct poisons or carcinogenic chemicals such as particulates, benzene, or
`others. Unburned hydrocarbons are also responsible for smog: the Sun’s
`ultraviolet radiations interact with unburned hydrocarbons and NO in the
`atmosphere to form ozone and other products. Ozone is a molecule formed
`of three oxygen atoms. It is colorless but very dangerous, and poisons as it
`attacks the membranes of living cells, thus causing them to age prematurely
`or to die. Toddlers, older people, and asthmatic humans suffer greatly from
`exposure to high ozone concentrations. Annually, deaths from high ozone
`peaks in polluted cities are reported.3
`
`1.1 .4 Other Pollutants
`
`Impurities in fuels result in the emission of pollutants. The major impurity is
`sulfur, which is mostly found in diesel and jet fuel and also in gasoline and
`natural gas.1 The combustion of sulfur (or sulfur compounds such as hydro-
`gen sulfide) with oxygen releases sulfur oxides (SOX). Sulfur dioxide (502) is
`the major product of this combustion. Upon contact with air, it forms sulfur
`trioxide, which later reacts with water to form sulfuric acid, a major compo-
`nent of acid rain. It should be noted that sulfur oxide emissions originate
`from transportation sources, but also largely from the combustion of coal in
`power plants and steel factories. In addition, there is debate over the exact
`contribution of natural sources such as volcanoes.
`Petroleum companies add chemical compounds to their fuels in order to
`improve the performance or lifetime of engines.1 Tetraethyl lead, often
`referred to simply as ”lead,” was used to improve the knock resistance of
`gasoline and therefore allow for better engine performance. However, the
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
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`

`4
`
`Modern Electric, Hybrid Electric, and Fuel Cell Vehicles
`
`Environmental lmpac
`
`
`
`combustion of this chemical releases lead metal, which is responsible for a
`neurological disease called ”saturnism." Its use is now forbidden in most
`developed countries and it has been replaced by other chemicals.1
`
`———‘J————_——_
`
`1.2 Global Warming
`
`Global warming is a result of the ”greenhouse effect” induced by the pres—
`ence of carbon dioxide and other gases, such as methane, in the atmosphere.
`These gases trap the Sun’s infrared radiation reflected by the ground, thus
`retaining the energy in the atmosphere and increasing the temperature. An
`increased Earth temperature results in major ecological damages to its
`ecosystems and in many natural disasters that affect human populations.2
`Among the ecological damages induced by global warming, the disap-
`pearance of some endangered species is a concern because it destabilizes the
`natural resources that feed some populations. There are also concerns about
`the migration of some species from warm seas to previously colder northern
`seas, where they can potentially destroy indigenous species and the
`economies that live off those species. This may be happening in the
`Mediterranean Sea, where barracudas from the Red Sea have been observed.
`Natural disasters command our attention more than ecological disasters
`because of the amplitude of the damage they cause. Global warming is
`believed to have induced meteorological phenomena such as ”El Nifio,”
`which disturbs the South—Pacific region and regularly causes tornadoes,
`inundations, and dryness. The melting of the polar icecaps, another major
`result of global warming, raises the sea level and can cause the permanent
`inundation of coastal regions, and sometimes of entire countries.
`Carbon dioxide is the result of the combustion of hydrocarbons and coal.
`Transportation accounts for a large share (32% from 1980 to 1999) of carbon
`dioxide emissions. The distribution of carbon dioxide emissions is shown in
`Figure 1.1.4
`Figure 1.2 shows the trend in carbon dioxide emissions. The transporta-
`tion sector is clearly now the major contributor of carbon dioxide emissions.
`It should be noted that developing countries are rapidly increasing their
`transportation sector, and these countries represent a very large share of the
`world’s population. Further discussion is provided in the next subsection.
`The large amounts of carbon dioxide released in the atmosphere by
`human activities are believed to be largely responsible for the increase in
`global Earth temperature observed during recent decades (Figure 1.3). It is
`important to note that carbon dioxide is indeed digested by plants and
`sequestrated by the oceans in the form of carbonates. However, these natu-
`ral assimilation processes are limited and cannot assimilate all of the emitted
`carbon dioxide, resulting in an aCCumulation of carbon dioxide in the atmos-
`phere.
`
`
`
`
`
`Transpor
`32°A
`
`FIGURE 1 .1
`Carbon dioxide emissior
`
`200C
`
`1 80C
`
`1 60C
`
`1 40C
`
`1 20C
`
`100C
`
`80C
`
`60(
`
`
`
`
`
`CO2emissioninmillionmetrictons
`
`FIGURE 1.2
`Evolution of carbon dio
`
`1.3
`
`Petroleum 1
`
`The vast majority o
`from petroleum. P6
`of living matters t]
`
`
`
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`

`Environmental Impact and History ofModerrz Transportation
`
`5
`
`Residential
`
`
`.
`, 19%
`
`Transportation
`32%
`
`Commercial
`15%
`
`lndustriai
`34%
`
`FIGURE 1.1
`Carbon dioxide emission distribution from 1980 to 1999
`
`2000
`
`
`
`
`Industrial
`
`-
`U,
`/-‘_,-“L
`51600
`
`‘3 1400 —~\ / 4:
`
`'
`Transportation
`‘D
`C
`E 1200
`3:2
`E 1000
`E
`800
`g
`E
`a?“
`8 400
`
`
`
`1 800
`
`600
`
`Residential
`
`, ‘33—— /
`
`
`\ ~ ,. .l
`/ _—
`_ / «-
`
`
`.
`
`Commercnal
`
`
`
`
`
`200
`0
`1975
`
`1980
`
`1985
`
`1990
`
`1995
`
`2000
`
`ides
`
`or a
`aost
`
`_‘
`
`res-
`
`.ere.
`hus
`An
`_ its
`. 2
`"
`iap-
`the
`out
`tern
`
`the
`the
`red.
`ters
`'
`.
`I,
`g 15
`‘0,
`0535,
`3101‘
`lent
`
`oal.
`hon
`
`1 m
`rta-
`ms.
`~
`1611‘
`the
`n.
`
`”yummy.M.u.
`
`i
`
`j
`1
`
`_
`l
`-
`
`1
`
`2
`-
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`w
`_
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`FIGURE 1.2
`Evolution of carbon dioxide emission
`
`Year
`
`by
`z in
`.
`« r“
`at IS
`md
`itu-
`
`Petroleum Resources
`
`1.3
`
`ted
`
`
`“—
`
`The vast majority of fuels used for transportation are liquid fuels originating
`fi-om petroleum. Petroleum is a fossil fuel, resulting from the decomposition
`of living matters that were imprisoned millions of years ago (Ordovician,
`
`
`
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`BMW1107
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`

`

`6
`
`Modern Electric, Hybrid Electric, and Fuel Cell Vehicles
`
`Monmental Imp
`
`
`
`.-ll
`
`0.6
`0.4
`0.2
`
`Global temperature changes (1 861-4 996) EPA
`0.33
`
`0.22
`
`0.11
`
`
`o
`o
`0
`lg -o.2
`
`0.4
`
`.05
`
`'0-8
`-1
`«(292$\b3’%:@~\90\’9\\\9®\9®\9QSQDNNQ‘QN’é‘\xg‘b\*9g\
`Year
`
`0
`0.11 g
`-0.22
`—0.33
`—0.44
`—0.56
`
`FIGURE 1.3
`
`Global Earth atmospheric temperature. (Source: [PCC (1995) updated.)
`
`600 to 400 million years ago) in geologically stable layers. The process is
`roughly the following: living matters (mostly plants) die and are slowly cov-
`ered by sediments. Over time, these accumulating sediments form thick lay-
`ers, and transform to rock. The living matters are trapped in a closed space,
`where they encounter high pressures and temperatures, and slowly trans-
`form into either hydrocarbons or coal, depending on their nature. This
`process took millions of years to accomplish. This is what makes the Earth’s
`resources in fossil fuels finite.
`The proved reserves are ”those quantities that geological and engineering
`information indicates with reasonable certainty can be recovered in the future
`from known reservoirs under existing economic and operating conditions”.5
`Therefore, they do not constitute an indicator of the Earth’s total reserves. The
`proved reserves, as they are given in the British Petroleum 2001 estimate,5 are
`given in billion tons in Table 1.1. The R/P ratio is the number of years that the
`proved reserves would last if the production were to continue at its current
`level. This ratio is also given in Table 1.1 for each region.5
`The oil extracted nowadays is the easily extractable oil that lies close to the
`surface, in regions where the climate does not pose major problems. It is
`believed that far more oil lies underneath the crust of the Earth in such
`regions like Siberia, and the American and Canadian Arctic. In these regions,
`the climate and ecological concerns are major obstacles to extracting or
`prospecting for oil. The estimation of the Earth’s total reserves is a difficult
`task for political and technical reasons. A 2000 estimation of undiscovered oil
`resources by the US. Geological Survey is given in Table 1.2.6
`Although the R/P ratio does not include future discoveries, it is significant.
`I