Hadeka of
`
`Air Poflllmian fmm
`
`Enigmafl COmbmtign
`
`ERAN SHER
`
`Engines
`
`Edited by
`
`BMW v. Paice, IPR2020-01386
`BMW1104
`Page 1 of 18
`
`

`

`This book belongs to Gregory Davis (gdavis@kettering.edu)
`
`Copyright Elsevier 2021
`
`Handbook of
`Air Pollution from
`Internal Combustion Engines
`Pollutant Formation and Control
`
`Editedby
`Eran Sher
`
`ACADEMIC PRESS
`Boston San Diego New York
`London Sydney Tokyo Toronto
`
`BMW v. Paice, IPR2020-01386
`BMW1104
`Page 2 of 18
`
`

`

`This book belongs to Gregory Davis (gdavis@kettering.edu)
`
`Copyright Elsevier 2021
`
`This book is printed on acid-free paper. §
`
`Copyright © 1998 by Academic Press.
`
`All rights reserved.
`No part of this publication may be reproduced or
`transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic
`or mechanical, including photocopy, recording, or
`any information storage and retrieval system, without
`permission in writing from the publisher.
`
`ACADEMIC PRESS
`525 B Street, Suite 1900, San Diego, CA 92101, USA
`1300 Boylston Street, Chestnut Hill, MA 02167, USA
`http://www.apnet.com
`
`UnitedKingdomEditionpublishedby
`ACADEMIC PRESS LIMITED
`24-28 Oval Road, London NW1 7DX
`http://www.hbuk/co.uk/ap/
`
`ISBN: 0-12-639855-0
`Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
`Handbook of air pollution from internal combustion engines : pollutant
`formation and control/edited by Eran Shere
`p.
`em.
`Includes bibliographical references and index.
`ISBN 0-12-639855-0 Calk. paper)
`1. Motor vehicles-Motors-Exhaust gas-Environmental aspects.
`2. Internal combustion engines-Environmental aspects.
`3. Air-
`Pollution.
`I. Sher, Eran.
`TD886.5.H36
`1998
`629.25/28-dc21
`
`97-48256
`CIP
`
`Printed in the United States of America
`
`98 99 00 01 02 IP 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
`
`BMW v. Paice, IPR2020-01386
`BMW1104
`Page 3 of 18
`
`

`

`This book belongs to Gregory Davis (gdavis@kettering.edu)
`
`Copyright Elsevier 2021
`
`Contents
`
`List of Contributors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
`Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
`
`xiii
`xix
`
`.
`
`PART I
`OVERViEW
`1. Motor Vehicle Emissions Control: Past
`Achievements, Future Prospects
`JohnB.Heywood SunJaeProfessorofMechanicalEngineering,
`Director,SloanAutomotiveLaboratory,MassachusettsInstituteof
`Technology,Massachusetts,UnitedStates
`1.1 Synopsis......................................
`1.2
`Introduction...................................
`1.3 Motor Vehicles and Air Pollution
`. . . . . . . .
`1.4 The Science of Pollutant Formation and Control
`1.5
`Effectiveness of Current Emission Control Technology . . .
`1.6 Direct-Injection Engines, Two-Strokes, and Diesels. . . . . .
`1.7
`Future Prospects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
`References
`
`PART II
`GLOBAL ASPECTS
`2. Environment Aspects of Air Pollution
`EranSher DepartmentofMechanicalEngineering,ThePearlstone
`CenterforAeronauticalEngineeringStudies,Ben-GurionUniversityof
`theNegev,BeerSheva,Israel
`2.1
`Introduction...................................
`
`3
`
`4
`4
`5
`9
`15
`17
`20
`23
`
`25
`
`27
`
`28
`
`vii
`
`BMW v. Paice, IPR2020-01386
`BMW1104
`Page 4 of 18
`
`

`

`This book belongs to Gregory Davis (gdavis@kettering.edu)
`
`Copyright Elsevier 2021
`
`viii
`
`Contents
`
`2.2 Global Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
`2.3 Regional Effects
`References
`
`3. Health Aspects of Air Pollution
`RafaelS. Carel DivisionofCommunityMedicine,FacultyofHealth
`Sciences,SorokaMedicalCenter,Beer-Sheva,Israel
`3.1 Anatomy and Physiology of the Respiratory System .....
`3.2 Defense Mechanisms of the Lung .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
`3.3 Ventilatory Function Tests. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
`Principles of Inhalation Injuries. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
`3.4
`3.5 Airborne Pollutants Causing Cancer and other Diseases
`..
`References
`
`4. Economic and Planning Aspects of Transportation
`Emission
`Pninao. Plaut FacultyofArchitectureandTownPlanning,Technion,
`IsraelInstituteofTechnology,Haifa,Israel
`
`StevenE.Plaut GraduateSchoolofBusinessAdministration,University
`ofHaifa,Haifa,Israel
`4.1
`Introduction...................................
`The Notion of Optimal Pollution Abatement and Control.
`4.2
`4.3 Alternative Sets of Abatement Policies for Mobile-
`Source Emissions
`4.4 Administrative Methods of Pollution Emissions Control ..
`4.5
`Indirect Pricing Mechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
`4.6 Conclusions...................................
`References
`
`PART III
`SPARK-IGNITION ENGINES
`5.
`Introductory Chapter. Overview and the Role
`of Engines with Optical Access
`RichardStone DepartmentofEngineeringScience,Universityof
`Oxford,Oxford,UnitedKingdom
`5.1
`Introduction...................................
`Engines with Optical Access. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
`5.2
`5.3 High-Speed Photography
`5.4
`Flame Front Detection
`5.5 Mixture Preparation and Combustion Diagnostics. . . . . . .
`
`28
`35
`41
`
`42
`
`43
`52
`56
`58
`63
`64
`
`65
`
`66
`68
`
`72
`77
`82
`86
`87
`
`91
`
`93
`
`94
`97
`98
`102
`105
`
`BMW v. Paice, IPR2020-01386
`BMW1104
`Page 5 of 18
`
`

`

`This book belongs to Gregory Davis (gdavis@kettering.edu)
`
`Copyright Elsevier 2021
`
`Contents
`
`Some Applications of Engines with Optical Access. . . . . .
`5.6
`5.7 Conclusions...................................
`References
`6. Combustion-Related Emissions in 51 Engines
`SimoneHochgreb DepartmentofMechanicalEngineering,
`MassachusettsInstituteofTechnology,Massachusetts,UnitedStates
`6.1
`Introduction...................................
`6.2 NOxFormation.................................
`6.3 Carbon Monoxide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
`6.4 He Emissions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
`6.5 Summary.....................................
`References
`7. Pollution from Rotary Internal Combustion Engines
`MarkDulger DeparmentofMechanicalEngineering,Ben-Gurion
`University,Beer-Sheva,Israel
`7.1
`Introduction...................................
`7.2
`Sources of Hydrocarbon Emissions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
`References
`8. Control Technologies in Spark-Ignition Engines
`BrianE.Milton NuffieldProfessorofMechanicalEngineering,Headof
`School,SchoolofMechanicalandManufacturingEngineering,The
`UniversityofNewSouthWales,Sydney,Australia
`8.1 Global and Local Emissions: A Brief Overview of the
`Problem
`8.2 Global Emissions from SI Engines
`8.3
`Engine Control Factors for Local Emissions
`Transient Operation of Engines and the Effect on
`8.4
`Emissions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
`Some Details of Control Systems
`8.5
`8.6 Developments for the Future. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
`References
`
`PART IV
`COMPRESSION-IGNITION ENGINES . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
`9.
`Introduction
`FranzF. Pischinger FEVMotorentechnikGmbHandCoKG,Aachen,
`Germany
`9.1
`
`The Diesel Engine for Cars-Is There a Future?
`
`ix
`
`112
`115
`115
`
`118
`
`119
`124
`135
`137
`163
`164
`
`171
`
`171
`175
`188
`
`189
`
`190
`205
`209
`
`210
`222
`246
`255
`
`259
`
`261
`
`262
`
`BMW v. Paice, IPR2020-01386
`Page 6 of 18
`
`

`

`This book belongs to Gregory Davis (gdavis@kettering.edu)
`
`Copyright Elsevier 2021
`
`x
`
`Contents
`
`9.2
`State of Technology
`9.3
`Technology for the Future. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
`9.4
`Summary and Conclusions
`10. Combustion-Related Emissions in CI Engines
`1.GaryHawley,ChrisJ. Brace,andFrankJ. Wallace Departmentof
`MechanicalEngineering,UniversityofBath,Bath,UnitedKingdom
`
`RoyWHorrocks DieselEnginePowertrain,FordMotorCo. Ltd.
`Laindon,UnitedKingdom
`10.1
`Introduction...................................
`10.2 Review of Current and Projected Emissions Concems-
`General Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
`10.3 High-Speed DI Diesel Developments
`10.4 Overview of Emissions from CI Engines . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
`10.5 Current and Projected Global Emissions Legislative
`Requirements
`10.6 Advanced Emission Reduction Strategies for the Year 2000
`and Beyond . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
`10.7 Steady-State and Transient Emissions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
`10.8 Application of Computational Tools Toward Predicting and
`Reducing Emissions
`10.9 Advance Engineering Project
`References
`11. Control Technologies in Compression-Ignition
`Engines
`Stephen1. Charlton Director,AdvancedDieselEngineTechnology,
`CumminsEngineCompany,Inc.,Indiana,UnitedStates
`11.1
`Introduction...................................
`11.2 Electronic Fuel Systems for Diesel Engines . . . . . . . . . . . .
`11.3 Basic Principles of Electronic Control for Diesel Engines.
`11.4 Electronic Hardware for Diesel Engine Control . . . . . . . . .
`11.5 Exhaust Aftertreatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
`References
`
`PART V
`lWO-STROKE ENGINES
`12.
`Introductory Chapter: From a Simple Engine to an
`Electrically Controlled Gasdynamic System
`CornelC. Stan FTZResearchandTechnologyAssociationZwickau,
`WestsaxonInstituteofZwickau,Zwickau,Germany
`12.1
`Introduction...................................
`
`265
`269
`278
`
`280
`
`281
`
`283
`285
`288
`
`301
`
`306
`337
`
`341
`350
`353
`
`358
`
`359
`365
`374
`390
`406
`41 7
`
`421
`
`423
`
`424
`
`
`
`
`
`BMW v. Paice, IPR2020-01386
`BMW1104
`Page 7 of 18
`
`

`

`This book belongs to Gregory Davis (gdavis@kettering.edu)
`
`Copyright Elsevier 2021
`
`Contents
`
`12.2 Pollution Formation
`12.3 Methods of Mixture Preparation
`12.4 Techniques to Reduce Pollution
`12.5 The Future of the Two-Stroke Engine
`References
`
`13. Air Pollution from Small Two-Stroke Engines and
`Technologies to Control It
`YujiIkedaandTsuyoshiNakjima DepartmentofMechanical
`Engineering,KobeUniversity,Rokkodai,Nada,Kobe,Japan
`
`EranSher DepartmentofMechanicalEngineering,ThePearlstone
`CenterforAeronauticalEngineeringStudies,Ben-GurionUniversity,
`Beer-Sheva,Israel
`13.1 Pollutant Formation
`13.2 Pollutant Control. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
`..
`13.3 Flow and Emission Diagnostics (Experimental Results)
`References
`
`14. Air Pollution from Large Two-Stroke Diesel Engines
`and Technologies to Control It
`SvendHenningsen MANB&WDieselAlS,R&DDepartment,
`Copenhagen,Denmark
`14.1
`Introduction...................................
`14.2 Regulated Emissions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
`14.3 Exhaust Emissions
`14.4 Exhaust Emission ControlTechnologies-NOx Reduction
`Techniques
`14.5 Exhaust Emission Control Technologies-Reduction of
`Other Pollutants
`References
`
`PART VI
`FUELS
`
`Introductory Chapter: Fuel Effects
`15.
`DavidR.Blackmore ShellResearchandTechnologyCentre,Shell
`ResearchLtd.,Thornton,Chester,UnitedKingdom
`15.1 Historical Landmarks
`15.2 Recent Developments
`15.3 The Future
`15.4 In Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
`
`xi
`
`426
`429
`433
`436
`442
`
`441
`
`442
`448
`456
`473
`
`477
`
`478
`479
`482
`
`494
`
`516
`530
`
`535
`
`537
`
`538
`541
`544
`545
`
`BMW v. Paice, IPR2020-01386
`BMW1104
`Page 8 of 18
`
`

`

`This book belongs to Gregory Davis (gdavis@kettering.edu)
`
`Copyright Elsevier 2021
`
`xii
`
`Contents
`
`16. Fuel Effects on Emissions
`YoramZvirin,MarcelGutmanandLeonidTartakovsky Facultyof
`MechanicalEngineering,Technion,Haifa,Israel
`16.1 Background
`16.2 Gasolines (SI Engines)
`16.3 Diesel Fuels (CI Engines)
`16.4 Alternative Fuels. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
`References
`Appendix: 1 National Gasoline Specifications
`Appendix: 2 National Specifications for Automotive
`Diesel Fuel
`. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
`Appendix: 3 US EPA Models for Calculation of Fuel
`Effects on Exhaust Emissions
`
`Index
`
`547
`
`548
`550
`575
`603
`619
`624
`
`639
`
`645
`653
`
`BMW v. Paice, IPR2020-01386
`BMW1104
`Page 9 of 18
`
`

`

`This book belongs to Gregory Davis (gdavis@kettering.edu)
`
`Chapter 6: Combustion-Related Emissions in SI Engines
`
`--.- NO (g/mi)
`__ Exhaust HC (g/mi)
`- - NO std (g/mi)
`.... - HC std (g/mi)
`
`-.-CO (g/mi)
`• CO std (g/mi)
`-
`-
`
`_
`
`100
`
`80
`
`20
`
`__I._
`
`1980
`
`""_________L.
`
`......I
`
`1990
`
`2000
`
`10 ~----,----.....,.._---r___--_...,...---.....,
`
`8
`
`6
`
`4
`
`2 o
`
`~ __~
`1970
`1960
`
`--
`
`~U
`
`:c
`" 0c
`Cl:S
`0
`Z
`
`120
`
`Fig. 6.1.
`
`Year
`Evolution of aggregate light-duty vehicle fleet emissions and associated uncertainties, as esti-
`mated by fleet aggregate simulations (symbols and lines) and historical evolution of standards
`(lines) [2].
`
`exhaust [2]. In this chapter, however, only combustion-related (nonevaporative)
`sources are considered.
`Enormous progress has been made in reducing tailpipe emissions since the
`introduction of catalytic converters 25 years ago (Figure 6.1). Emissions from
`properly operating modem vehicles are at least one order of magnitude lower than
`precontrollevels.
`
`6.1.2 Maximum Allowed Emission Levels
`
`Emissions standards are permanently evolving throughout the world, reflecting
`demands for air quality as well as expectations on the minimum technically feasi-
`ble emission levels. The state of California has led the way in lowering maximum
`allowable emission levels to address the severe air quality problems in southern
`California; however, many other countries have continuously moved to increas-
`ingly lower admissible levels.
`Maximum allowed emissions levels in the largest consumer markets (the
`United States, Europe, and Japan) govern manufacturers' decisions in emission
`control implementation. Standards are defined relative to representative driving
`schedules in each region, so that absolute emission levels are not directly com-
`parable. The different schedules for passenger vehicle tests, as well as the cor-
`responding emission levels for spark-ignition engines are outlined in Figure 6.2
`and Table 6.1. These driving schedules, designed to represent a "typical" driv-
`ing pattern, include a cold-start period, followed by moderate accelerations and
`
`
`
`
`
`Copyright Elsevier 2021
`
`BMW v. Paice, IPR2020-01386
`Page 10 of 18
`
`

`

`This book belongs to Gregory Davis (gdavis@kettering.edu)
`
`6.1
`
`Introduction
`
`Fig. 6.2.
`
`(E C E+ EUDC)
`
`121
`
`(EUROPE)
`
`(JAPAN)
`
`(US)
`
`Part one (urban)
`(ECE)
`
`Part two (extra-urban)
`(EUDC)
`
`: 1220 s
`: 11 JXJ7 km Total duration
`Length
`Max. speed: 120 kmlh
`Average speed : 33.6 kmIh
`
`10.15 MODE HOT CYCLE
`~
`
`11•
`
`••••
`
`"............-.,I---'"-...-......-
`
`..........~~--.
`
`: 4.16 kin
`Length
`Max. Speed: 70 kmlh
`
`: 660 s
`Duration
`Average speed : 22.7 kmIh
`
`:
`
`•
`
`_
`
`117...
`
`•
`
`Cold transient
`Phase (I)
`
`Cold stabilized
`Phase (II)
`
`Hot Soak
`(9-11 min)
`
`Hot transient
`Phase (III)
`
`: 17.8 km
`length
`Max. speed : 91.2 kmIh
`
`: lsn s
`Total duration
`Average speed : 34.1 kmIh
`
`Driving schedules for emissions testing in Europe, Japan, and the United States.
`
`decelerations. The cold-start period contributes a disproportionate fraction of the
`emissions (particularly hydrocarbons), as the catalytic converter requires tens of
`seconds to warm up and reach maximum removal efficiency. Therefore, much of
`the effort in designing effective emission controls has been targeted at the initial
`cold-start phase. This will become clear in the following discussions and in the
`description of emission control technology in Chapter 8.
`
`6.1.3 Overview of Emission Sources
`
`The origin of tailpipe (i.e., nonevaporative) emissions from spark-ignition engines
`is shown schematically in Figure 6.3. Nitric oxides and carbon monoxide are
`formed via oxidation of molecular nitrogen and fuel in the bulk gases, whereas
`
`
`
`
`
`Copyright Elsevier 2021
`
`BMW v. Paice, IPR2020-01386
`BMW1104
`Page 11 of 18
`
`

`

`This book belongs to Gregory Davis (gdavis@kettering.edu)
`
`Copyright Elsevier 2021
`
`10.7 Steady-State and Transient Emissions
`
`337
`
`Section 10.5.1) gives figures of 0.312 g!km for NOx and 0.035 g/km for PM that
`are well within the Stage 3 limits [69].
`Finally, Shore et al. give the results of field tests carried out on buses under
`real city driving conditions both in London and Paris, using an AZ oxidation
`catalyst, and comparing the results obtained with those from chassis dynamometer
`measurements, simulating the European R49 13 drive cycle and the U.S. FrP-75
`cycle. The former is a series of steady-state modes, the latter a true transient cycle.
`This being a pure oxidation catalyst, NOx is not affected. The results obtained
`from these tests are highly variable, leading the authors to the conclusion that
`merely by changing the cycle, an entirely different view can be obtained of the
`potential benefits of oxidation catalysts [70].
`Ford, with FEV, demonstrated this technology applied to a diesel transit [71].
`An eutectic aqueous solution of urea was chosen for this exercise because it can
`achieve similar performance to ammonia, is nonpoisonous and does not present
`a fire hazard. The catalyst consisted of a vanadium-titanium substrate with a cell
`density of 200 cells per square inch (CPI) and the catalyst volume was optimized
`at 7.4-liters. Injection of the urea solution into the exhaust was controlled by a
`microprocessor. NOx conversion efficiencies of 65 percent and 83 percent were
`achieved on the European and FTP-75 cycles, respectively. A reductant tank
`capacity of 40 liters would be required for the 2.5-liter diesel Transit to operate
`between the 15,000-km service interval. This tank would need replenishing at each
`service. Issues with this system concern operation at low ambient temperatures,
`the size of catalyst, and the practicability of an emission-related reductant carried
`additionally on board the vehicle [71].
`
`10.7
`STEADY-STATE AND TRANSIENT EMISSIONS
`
`10.7.1 Comparison of Steady-State and Transient
`Emission Strategies
`
`Conventional engine calibration techniques are centered around steady-state test
`work. Once the hardware specification is fixed, there are many control inputs which
`need to be mapped to allow the electronic fuel injection equipment to obtain the
`required performance from the engine.
`The fundamental quantity, fueling, is set by the pedal position, which is
`combined with current engine speed in a map to determine the desired mass or
`volume of fuel to be injected. The shape of this map has a profound effect on the
`driveability of the vehicle and needs to be carefully designed. One of the main
`characteristics set by this map is the degree of torque back-up. If the engine speed
`drops when climbing a hill, for example, more fuel is injected. This increases
`engine torque output to help the vehicle feel more stable and easier to control. It
`
`BMW v. Paice, IPR2020-01386
`BMW1104
`Page 12 of 18
`
`

`

`This book belongs to Gregory Davis (gdavis@kettering.edu)
`
`Copyright Elsevier 2021
`
`338
`
`Chapter 10: Combustion-Related Emissions in CI Engines
`
`is this effect which gives the diesel engine its characteristically strong driveability
`attributes.
`The remaining control inputs are typically mapped against fueling and engine
`speed. The mapped variables are some or all of start of injection, rate of injection,
`degree of preinjection, EGR rate, turbocharger geometry or wastegate opening,
`inlet swirl control, and inlet throttle position.
`There are many modifiers to the calibration, typically engine temperature,
`ambient conditions, and so on. The controller may also incorporate features al-
`lowing cruise control or communication with other vehicle systems such as the
`transmission.
`The calibration procedure for steady state is heavily affected by emissions
`requirements, which are usually equally or more important than fuel economy
`and the limiting torque curve. The complete vehicle must pass a drive cycle test
`before it can be sold and the steady-state calibration will play a major part in
`achieving this. It is possible to represent a given drive cycle by a weighted average
`of a small number of carefully chosen steady-state points. Optimization of these
`points allows some confidence that the complete vehicle will perform as required.
`The rest of the speed/load range must also be considered to provide a smooth
`characteristic across the operating range.
`The process of optimizing this small selection of points is generally an it-
`erative process of locating the best trade-off between the various emissions by
`varying the principal engine control inputs. These are usually start of injection
`timing, EGR rate, and boost pressure. The best trade-off may not be imme-
`diately apparent. Reference must be made to the effect of the catalyst, if fit-
`ted, and to the legislative standards in force. Choosing the optimum trade-off
`between the various emissions and fuel consumption can be a matter for fine
`judgment.
`
`10.7.2 Transient Calibration
`
`Clearly the preceding technique is steady state based. The engine must work in a
`real situation which requires attention to the transient calibration.
`At one extreme the transient calibration may be considered as a means
`of moving the engine from one steady-state point to another with the minimum
`deviation from design conditions. This is in itself a demanding task as the transient
`factors such as boost pressure will deviate grossly from their steady state values.
`The strategy must account for these effects.
`To continue the preceding example, during an increase in power demand
`the strategy must limit fueling initially to the level which can be burned without
`excessive smoke production. Due to the low initial boost pressure this may be a
`lower fueling than may be expected from the steady-state calibration.
`Today's control structures commonly use a combination ofopen- and closed-
`loop algorithms. Open-loop controllers simply schedule their output using a look-
`up table or simple algorithm taking as inputs the measured operating point and
`
`BMW v. Paice, IPR2020-01386
`BMW1104
`Page 13 of 18
`
`

`

`This book belongs to Gregory Davis (gdavis@kettering.edu)
`
`Copyright Elsevier 2021
`
`11.1
`
`Introduction
`
`363
`
`11.1.3.3 Noise, Vibration, and Harshness
`
`In all vehicle applications noise, vibration, and harshness (NVH) are a very im-
`portant consideration. The buying public expects passenger cars and other light
`vehicles to be quiet in the passenger compartment under all conditions-at rest,
`during hard accelerations, and during high-speed cruise. Medium- and heavy-
`duty trucks are under the same pressure to reduce noise levels-both cab noise
`and externally emitted or drive-by noise. Electronic controls can be used to re-
`duce engine noise levels at source, primarily through control of the fuel system.
`Durnholz et al.
`[2] report dramatic reductions in combustion noise (c. 8 dBA)
`resulting from injection of a small "pilot" charge ahead of the main charge. Aside
`from pilot injection or rate shaping; injection timing and pressure can be sched-
`uled to reduce combustion noise, although this is usually at some penalty in fuel
`consumption.
`
`11.1.3.4 Reliability and Useful Life
`
`The reliability of any engine system is vitally important to the economics of the
`business and may have safety implications also, for example, in marine propulsion
`or hospital stand-by electrical power. One definition of reliability is that the engine
`should not fail to complete a mission due to an unexpected failure-the engine
`system should remain available between planned maintenance events. Durability
`is an extension of the reliability definition, which states that the engine system
`should remain available over a planned lifetime, subject to planned maintenance.
`The expectations for reliability and durability are rising steadily in all sectors of
`diesel engine application. For example, many passenger cars require only routine
`maintenance of fluids over the first 160,000 km (100,000 miles) ofusage. Medium-
`and heavy-duty trucks can achieve up to 1,600,000 km (1 million miles) before
`major rebuilding of the engine.
`Control systems can play an important part in achieving reliability and dura-
`bility by more accurately controlling the operation of the engine. For example,
`mechanical and thermal loads are usually increased by malfunctioning fuel injec-
`tion equipment or overboosting. Electronic controls offer the possibility both to
`control engine variables more accurately and to reduce the effects of production
`variability, but also to detect problems before they become serious. Reliability
`and durability may be enhanced by diagnostic systems that detect and identify
`problems that may not be detectable by the operator.
`
`11.1.3.5 Exhaust Emissions
`
`The role of digital control in exhaust emission control is vital in meeting the strin-
`gent standards current in many parts of the world, while simultaneously meeting or
`exceeding end-user expectations outlined earlier. Emission control demands not
`
`BMW v. Paice, IPR2020-01386
`BMW1104
`Page 14 of 18
`
`

`

`This book belongs to Gregory Davis (gdavis@kettering.edu)
`
`Copyright Elsevier 2021
`
`364
`
`Chapter 11: Control Technologies for Compression-Ignition Engines
`
`only careful design of the combustion event and supporting fuel, air, and related
`emission controls, for example, EGR and aftertreatment, but is very demanding of
`accurate and repeatable control from event-to-event, cylinder-to-cylinder, engine-
`to-engine, and over the lifetime of the engine. Typically, the goal of the engine
`control system from an emission control viewpoint is to provide the demanded
`quantity of fuel, air, and EGR at the required time, in the required state (pressure
`and temperature), over the engine lifetime, compensating for wear-out and other
`forms of deterioration. Additionally, for vehicle applications, emission control
`systems should be supported by on-board diagnostic (OBD) systems capable of
`recording fault codes and lighting a malfunction indicator light (MIL), which is
`displayed until the fault is corrected.
`The emissions compliance of an engine is measured by a test procedure,
`which defines a wide array of conditions under which the engine should be tested,
`and the methods by which the emissions should be measured and analyzed. For
`example in the United States, heavy-duty truck engines are tested on an engine
`dynamometer. The engine is subjected to a transient test cycle in which a schedule
`of engine speed and torque is followed, as shown in Figure 11.1. Light-duty
`vehicles are typically tested in-vehicle on a chassis dynamometer. In this type of
`test the vehicle has to follow a vehicle speed schedule. The European light-duty
`vehicle test cycle (ECE-15+EUDC) is shown in Figure 11.2. In both cases the
`
`Fig. 11.1.
`
`New York
`Non-Freeway
`297 sec
`
`Los Angeles
`Non-Freeway
`300 sec
`
`Los Angeles
`Freeway
`305 sec
`
`New York
`Non-Freeway
`297 sec
`
`120 +----~---L--~---+----__r__--+-~--__t
`~ 100 +----~--ft--:~----IH--+-~t+_I!h__-_i_-
`"'Cm 80 + ---i _ -- H 1----11'\1-1 HIH 1:---1 H-:f
`0-
`W 60
`"'C
`.~
`co
`E 20o
`
`40
`
`Z
`
`_
`
`__t
`
`100 ~--_r__--~--'r"T"'1I
`
`-20 + - - -+ - - -+ - - - -+ - - -_ i _ - -_ i _ - - - - t
`........----.------r------r
`~ ~
`
`f-~
`i
`II
`,
`III
`I I
`-20 + - - - - -+ - - - - -+ - - - -+ - - - -+ - - - - -+ - - - - - 1
`o
`1000
`1200
`200
`400
`600
`800
`Time [seconds]
`Engine dynamometer test cycle used to certify the emissions compliance of heavy-duty engines,
`US-FTP.
`
`t-+--+ft-t-t----11"1'-1
`
`~
`
`l
`M I,ll
`
`II
`
`11
`
`I~
`
`II
`
`80 ~--tt+T----i'r---rlH-t!~-
`~
`5- 60
`<5
`~
`~
`
`i 20
`
`:111 tT t ~
`
`~
`
`BMW v. Paice, IPR2020-01386
`BMW1104
`Page 15 of 18
`
`

`

`This book belongs to Gregory Davis (gdavis@kettering.edu)
`
`Copyright Elsevier 2021
`
`BMW v. Paice, IPR2020-01386
`BMW1104
`Page 16 of 18
`
`11.2 Electronic Fuel Systems for Diesel Engines
`
`Fig. 11.2.
`140
`
`Vehicle Speed [km/hr}
`120 -+-----+---+-----+---+-----t--..".~
`
`100 +----+---+----+---+-----t-~
`
`80 -+-----+---+-----+----t------+--;
`
`60+----+---+-----+---+--1
`
`40
`
`20
`
`365
`
`_
`
`Cycle Analysis
`Distance traveled
`ECE-15 cycle
`EUDC Cycle
`Maximum speed
`ECE-15 cycle
`EUDC Cycle
`Average Speed
`ECE-15 cycle
`EUDC Cycle
`
`Acceleration
`Deceleration
`Idle
`Steady speed
`
`1.013kmx4 =
`
`4.052km
`6.095 km
`
`50 km/h
`120 km/h
`
`19 km/h
`63 kmlh
`
`21.6 % (of cycle time)
`13.8%
`35.4 %
`29.3%
`
`200
`
`800
`600
`400
`Test Cycle Time [seconds]
`
`1000
`
`1200
`
`Vehicle dynamometer test cycle used to certify the emissions compliance of light-duty vehicles,
`ECE-15+EUDC.
`
`exhaust emissions produced during the cycle are measured for comparison with
`the standards required by the particular legislation.
`The definition of the test cycle and data collection is quite different for these
`two cases. The challenge for the control system engineer is to provide optimum
`settings for the controlled variables, under steady-state and transient conditions,
`such that emissions compliance is achieved in volume production, both for new
`engines and over the lifetime of the engine, subject to an allowable deterioration
`factor. It will be obvious from the foregoing discussion that emission compliance
`should be achieved without undue sacrifice of fuel economy, performance, or
`reliability.
`
`11.2
`ELECTRONIC FUEL SYSTEMS FOR DIESEL ENGINES
`
`11.2.1
`
`Introduction
`
`One of the keys to the success of the diesel engine has been the development
`of fuel injection equipment that can meet the many demanding requirements. In
`fact the development of a satisfactory fuel system was not achieved for almost 20
`years after Rudolf Diesel first demonstrated the concepts of the diesel combustion
`system. Among the key requirements that differentiate diesel engine fuel systems
`from other types of fuel systems are:
`
`1.
`
`2.
`
`Very high injection pressure (up to 2000 bar)-required to achieve a short
`injection period with acceptable fuel atomization and mixing.
`High accuracy of injection timing-required to control engine fuel consump-
`tion, peak combustion pressure, and emissions performance.
`
`

`

`This book belongs to Gregory Davis (gdavis@kettering.edu)
`
`Copyright Elsevier 2021
`
`408
`
`Chapter 11: Control Technologies for Compression-Ignition Engines
`
`be found in diesel exhaust, which is derived from engine wear products or from
`additives in the lube oil.
`For the purpose of engine development, particulatematteris defined by the
`relevant test standard used to measure it. Totalparticulatematter(TPM) consists
`of any exhaust component, other than water, filtered from a sample drawn from a
`dilution tunnel, operated at the conditions specified in the relevant test procedure.
`Dilution tunnel conditions simulate real conditions at the tailpipe of a road vehicle
`where exhaust products mix with the surrounding air.
`Diesel particulate matter typically consists of small carbon spheres (0.010-
`0.080jlm)with adsorbed hydrocarbons, agglomerated carbon particles (0.05-1.0
`jlm) with adsorbed hydrocarbons, liquid condensed hydrocarbons, sulfates, and
`ash. The precise analysis of diesel particulate will depend on many factors, in-
`cluding fuel formulation, fuel injection quality, lube oil control in the engine, the
`nature of the combustion event (e.g., premixed versus diffusion bum fractions),
`air-fuel ratio, air-fuel mixing rate, and flame temperature history. The flame tem-
`perature history is important because the oxidation of soot occurs at a finite rate
`that depends on flame temperature. The residence time of soot at high temperature
`is inversely proportional to engine speed, making soot oxidation difficult as engine
`It is vitally important to consider the composition of diesel
`speed is increased.
`particulate matter when developing catalysts or filters for emission control. It is
`usual to divide particulates into three parts: soot, soluble organic fraction (SOF),
`and sulfates. The SOF consists of the hydrocarbons adsorbed on to the soot par-
`ticles, and liquid hydrocarbons. SOF is so called because it may be measured by
`extraction using an organic solvent.
`Oxides of nitrogen form during the diesel combustion process in the high-
`temperature flame as nitric oxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide (N02). Collectively
`these two gases are known as NOx. NO is the predominant form since the reactions
`from which it is produced proceed at higher rates than the reactions for N02 at the
`conditions prevailing in the diesel combustion process. Theoretical considerations
`based on chemical kinetics would suggest N02INO ratios less than 5 percent. In
`reality N02 typically accounts for 10 percent to 20 percent of the NOx •
`Emission standards regulate the sum of all oxides of nitrogen as NOx; some
`standards regulate the sum of NOx and unburned gaseous hydrocarbons (HC).
`Diesel engines tend to emit very small quantities of carbon monoxide (CO) com-
`pared with gasoline engines, and meeting the regulated CO standards is not nor-
`mally difficult.
`
`11.5.2 Exhaust Aftertreatment Design Requirements
`
`The design requirements for aftertreatment systems depend not only on the ex-
`haust composition, but also on the duty cycle that the emissions test and the end
`users impose on the engine. The aftertreatment device should function correctly
`when new and continue to meet emission control requirements over the design
`
`BMW v. Paice, IPR2020-01386
`BMW1104
`Page 17 of 18
`
`

`

`This book belongs to Gregory Davis (gdavis@kettering.edu)
`
`Copyright Elsevier 2021
`
`11.5 Exhaust Aftertreatment
`
`409
`
`life of the engine. The emission cycles discussed earlier in this section were for
`heavy-duty e