`Electric Automobile
`Hybrid Electric Vehicles
`
`Ernest Henry Wakefield, Ph.D.
`
`Society of Automotive Engineers, Inc .
`. '
`Warrendale, Pa.
`
`BMW1027
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`Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
`
`Wakefield, Ernest Henry, 1915-
`History of the electric automobile : hybrid electric vehicles / Ernest Henry
`Wakefield.
`p. cm.
`Includes bibliographical references and index.
`ISBN 0-7680-0125-0
`1. Automobiles, Electric--History. 2. Hybrid Electric Cars--History. I. Title.
`TL220.W343 1988
`629.22'93--DC21
`
`98-3420
`CIP
`
`Vehicles pictured on cover (clockwise from upper left): Esoro H301 Family hybrid electric car; General Motors
`1987 Sunraycer; American fuel cell bus; Woods' dual-powered 14-hp coupe of 1917.
`
`Copyright© 1998 EmestH. Wakefield
`
`ISBN 0-7680-0125-0
`
`All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America.
`
`Permission to photocopy for internal or personal use, or the internal or personal use of specific clients, is
`granted by SAE for libraries and other users registered with the Copyright Clearance Center (CCC), provided
`that the base fee of $.50 per page is paid directly to CCC, 222 Rosewood Dr., Danvers, MA 01923. Special
`requests should be addressed to the SAE Publications Group. 0-7680-0125-0/98 $.50.
`
`Society of Automotive Engineers
`400 Commonwealth Drive
`Warrendale, PA 15096-0001 U.S.A.
`Phone: (724) 776-4841
`Fax: (724) 776-5760
`E-mail: publications@sae.org
`http://www.sae.org
`
`SAE Order No. R-187
`
`' '
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`BMW1027
`Page 2 of 26
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`Other SAE books of interest on this topic:
`
`Alternative Cars in the 21"1 Century
`Robert Q. Riley
`(Order No. R-139)
`
`Building the E-motive Industry
`Essays and Conversations About Strategies for Creating an Electric Vehicle Industry
`Scott A. Cronk
`(OrderNo.R-148)
`
`Electric Vehicles
`Driving Towards Commercialization
`Edited by Ron Sims and Bradford Bates
`(OrderNo.PT-58)
`
`For information on these or other related books, contact:
`~iety of Automotive Engineers Inc.
`400 Commonwealth Drive
`Warrendale, PA 15096-0001 U.S.A.
`Phone: (724) 776-4970
`Fax: (724) 776-0790
`E-mail: publications@sae.org
`
`' '
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`BMW1027
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`Table of Contents
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`Foreword ............................................................................................................................. xv
`
`Pref ace ............................................................................................................................... xvii
`
`Acknowledgments ............................................................................................................ xix
`
`Chapter 1 Background for the Hybrid Electric Horseless Carriage ...................... 1
`Establishing the Principles of Electricity .......................................................... 1
`Development of the Bicycle and the Tricycle .................................................. 3
`Tires and Batteries ........................................................................................... 4
`The Lead-Acid Battery and the First Electric Cars ........................................ 6
`Generation and Distribution of Electricity ........................................................ 7
`Early Transportation Problems ......................................................................... 9
`The Modem Approach .................................................................................. 13
`Notes .............................................................................................................. 13
`References ..................................................................................................... 14
`
`Chapter 2 The History of the Petro-Electric Vehicle .............................................. 17
`Competition for Nascent Power Systems ...................................................... 18
`The First Petro-Electric Vehicle .................................................................... 19
`The Belgian and the French Petro-Electric Cars ........................................... 21
`Other European Hybrid Electric Vehicles ...................................................... 23
`The Lohner-Porsche Hybrid Electric Vehicle ................................................ 24
`The Auto-Mixte Petro-Electric Car .............................................................. 25
`The Mercedes-Mixte Petro-Electric Car ...................................................... 27
`The Krieger Petro-Electric Car ..................................................................... 27
`Early American Petro-Electric Vehicles ........................................................ 27
`The Baker and the Woods Petro-Electric Vehicles ....................................... 29
`The Jeffery Petro-Electric Automobile .......................................................... 32
`Notes .............................................................................................................. 32
`References ..................................................................................................... 33
`. '
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`His~zy of the Electric Automobile: Hybrid Electric Vehicles
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`Chapter 3 Recent Petro- and Natural Gas-Electric Car Systems .......................... 35
`The Minicars Petro-Electric Drive Train ....................................................... 36
`Wouk's Petro-Electric Automobile ................................................................ 36
`The Linear Alpha Petro-Electric Van ............................................................ 39
`The General Motors Petro-Electric Vehicle ................................................. 40
`Trailer Petro-Electric Automobiles ............................................................... 42
`The McKee Engineering Company Range Extender ................................... 43
`Aronson's Petro-Electric Silver Volt ............................................................ 45
`The Brobeck Petro-Electric Automobile ...................................................... 46
`Briggs & Strratton-Marathon Petro-Electric Automobile ............................. 48
`The General Electric/U.S. Department of Energy
`Petro-Electric Automobile .......................................................................... 49
`The Mclnnis Petro-Electric Car ................................................................... 52
`The 1993 Ford Hybrid Electric Vehicle (HEV) Challenge ........................... 52
`The University of Illinois Entry ..................................................................... 55
`The Natural Gas-Electric Multi-Powered Automobile ................................. 60
`Note I-Additional Comments ..................................................................... 61
`Note 2-A Petro-Electric Bus ..................................................................... 64
`Note 3-The Briggs & Stratton Hybrid Electric Vehicle ............................. 65
`References .................................................................................................... 67
`
`Chapter 4 Modern International Petro-Electric Automobiles .............................. 69
`British Petro-Electric Automobiles ............................................................... 69
`Canadian Petro-Electric Automobiles ........................................................... 70
`French Petro-Electric Vehicles ..................................................................... 72
`German Petro-Electric Automobiles ............................................................. 72
`A Robert Bosch Hybrid Electric Automobile ............................................... 72
`The Volkswagen-Electricite Neuchateloise S.A. System ............................. 74
`Opel Twin Petro-Assist Automobile ............................................................. 76
`European Ford Petro-Electric Car ................................................................ 78
`The Volkswagen Petro-Electric Car-The Chico ....................................... 80
`Japanese Petro-Electric Vehicles .................................................................. 81
`Swedish Petro-Electric Automobiles ............................................................ 81
`Petro-Electric Cars of the Former Soviet Union .......................................... 85
`A Swiss Petro-Electric Motorcar ................................................................. 85
`Note I-Miss Purity Participants ................................................................ 88
`Note 2-The Otto Engine ............................................................................. 88
`References .................................................................................................... 90
`
`Chapter 5 Experiments with Non-Petro-Electric Vehicles ..................................... 93
`Carli's Electric-Spring Tricycle ...................................................................... 94
`Battery-Battery Automobiles .............................. ~ ........................................... 97
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`Fuel Cell-Battery Powered Automobiles ....................................................... 98
`The Family of Fuel Cells .............................................................................. 102
`Aluminum-Air Fuel Cell with Lead-Acid Battery Van ................................ 104
`Noncontact Inductively Charged Moving Vehicles ...................................... 107
`Summary ...................................................................................................... 110
`Note 1-The General Motors Fuel Cell-Battery Powered Van .................. 110
`Note 2-The Canadian Hydrogen-Fueled Bus ............................................ 111
`Note 3-Mirai 1 ......................................................................................... 114
`Note 4-The Chrysler Fuel Cell Powered Vehicle ...................................... 114
`References ................................................................................................... 116
`
`Chapter 6 The Flywheel-Electric Vehicle ................................................................ 119
`Flywheel-Institut fur Kraftfahrwesen ....................................................... 121
`Flywheel Work at Other Sites ...................................................................... 123
`The AIResearch Manufacturing Company Flywheel-Electric Vehicle ....... 125
`American Flywheel Systems ....................................................................... 128
`Continuing Work on Flywheels for Transportation ....................................... 129
`Summary Articles on Flywheel Energy Storage .......................................... 134
`Note 1-Another Flywheel System ............................................................. 135
`Note 2-Gyroscopic Effects ....................................................................... 135
`Note 3-The Parry People Mover .............................................................. 137
`Note 4-Flywheel Energy Storage in Japan ................................................ 139
`References ................................................................................................... 139
`
`Chapter 7 Gas Turbine~Electric Motorcars ............................................................ 141
`History of the Gas Turbine ........................................................................... 141
`Chrysler and Volvo Motorcars ..................................................................... 142
`The Chrysler Turbine-Flywheel Car-The Patriot ..................................... 143
`The Volvo Gas Turbine Electric Car ............................................................ 144
`The Rosen Motors Turbine-Flywheel Power Train for Automobiles ........... 150
`Note 1-The Whittle Jet Engine .................................................................. 152
`Note 2-Chrysler Gas Turbine Cars ........................................................... 152
`References ................................................................................................... 153
`
`Chapter 8 The Origin, Operation, and Applications of the Stirling Engine ....... 155
`Robert Stirling .............................................................................................. 155
`Subsequent Development of the Stirling Engine .......................................... 157
`Eighty Years Later ....................................................................................... 158
`Sterling Thermal Motors' Solar Power Conversion ..................................... 164
`General Motors Stir-Lee I ............................................................................ 167
`Stephenson's Conclusions on Hybrid Electric Vehicles ............................... 168
`Notes ............................................................................................................ 170
`References ................................................................ , ................................... 172
`
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`History of the Electric Automobile: Hybrid Electric Vehicles
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`Chapter 9 On the Road to an Emissionless Automobile ...................................... 175
`Competing with Gasoline-Powered Cars ..................................................... 175
`Opening the Window for Ernissionless Cars ................................................ 177
`The Influence of Hans Tholstrup ................................................................. 179
`Robert Stempel Becomes Chairman and CEO of General Motors ............. 181
`Notes ............................................................................................................ 182
`References ................................................................................................... 182
`
`Chapter 10 Photovoltaic Cells and Their Status ...................................................... 185
`History of the Photovoltaic Cell ................................................................... 186
`Gallium-Arsenide Solar Cells ....................................................................... 190
`Note I-More on Gallium-Arsenide Solar Cells ......................................... 190
`Note 2-Econornic Considerations .............................................................. 191
`Note 3-Solar Cells in Boats ....................................................................... 191
`Note 4--The Wave Theory of Light ........................................................... 191
`References ................................................................................................... 192
`
`Chapter 11 Sun Areas of the World and the Atmosphere ....................................... 195
`Geographic Considerations in Solar-Electric Vehicle Design ....................... 195
`Solar-Assist and Solar-Dominant Motorcars ............................................... 200
`Notes ............................................................................................................ 202
`References ................................................................................................... 202
`
`Chapter 12 History of Solar-Electric Vehicles .......................................................... 203
`Background .................................................................................................. 203
`Freeman's British Solar-Electric Vehicle ..................................................... 205
`The General Motors Sunraycer .................................................................. 210
`The MIT Solarrnobile Solectria IV .............................................................. 211
`Ford Motor Company of Australia Sunchaser ............................................ 213
`Electrical and Mechanical Features of a Solarrnobile .................................. 214
`American Solar-Assist Electric Motorcars .................................................. 217
`1996 Solar-Battery Ford Festiva, Designed for Sarninco Inc ..................... 218
`Japenese Solar-Assist Automobiles ............................................................. 218
`References ................................................................................................... 220
`
`Chapter 13 The Trans-Australian World Solar Challenge Race-1987 ............... 223
`Background .................................................................................................. 223
`The Race Begins ......................................................................................... 227
`Entries and Results of the 1987 Australian World Solar
`Challenge Race .......................................................................................... 235
`Comments from Winning Team Members ................................................... 237
`Performance of Cars ................................................................................... 238
`Other Vehicles ................................................ , ............................................. 246
`References ................................................................................................... 249
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`Chapter 14 American Tour de Sol-1992 ................................................................... 251
`Background .................................................................................................. 251
`The American Tour de Sol Race ................................................................ 254
`Vehicle Range Increases with Time ............................................................ 262
`References ................................................................................................... 269
`
`Chapter 15 Solar Race Car Design: The Late Twentieth Century ....................... 271
`Changes in Design Standards ...................................................................... 271
`Australian World Solar Challenge Race-1993 ........................................... 276
`The Honda Dream ....................................................................................... 278
`Ingenieurschule Biel Spirit of Biel III ......................................................... 281
`The Motor-Wheel of the Swiss Spirit of Biel III ........................................ 282
`A Commercial Market for Solar-Powered Cars ......................................... 287
`Starting a Solarmobile Business-Traits of the Entrepreneur ..................... 289
`The Sports Solarmobile ................................................................................ 290
`Influence of Sunraycer, Spirit of Biel III, and Dream
`on Design Today ........................................................................................ 291
`References ................................................................................................... 294
`
`- Chapter 16 Final Thoughts and Coda ......................................................................... 297
`The Race for an Emissionless Vehicle ......................................................... 297
`Reviewing the Past to Better Understand the Future .................................. 300
`Conclusion .................................................................................................... 302
`References ................................................................................................... 304
`
`Appendix A The Hughes Inductive Charger System ............................................... 305
`How Magne-Charge Works ........................................................................ 308
`Electrical Performance ................................................................................ 310
`Availability and Price ................................................................................... 310
`References ................................................................................................... 312
`
`Appendix B Ultracapacitors for Electric Automobiles ............................................. 313
`References ................................................................................................... 316
`
`Index .................................................................................................................................. 317
`
`About the Author ............................................................................................................. 331
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`CHAPTER2
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`The History of the
`Petro-Electric Vehicle
`
`For more than four generations, experimenters have assembled electric vehicles bearing a
`supplemental energy source for the enhancement of range. Historically, this extra energy has
`been supplied by springs, flywheels, fuel cells, petroleum or natural gas-powered engines, and,
`most recently, solar cells. In a recent study, the U.S. Department of Energy identified 81
`worldwide attempts in which one or two hybrid electric vehicles were made to yield extra
`range. 1 Therefore, we may conclude that range limitation has long been identified. To over(cid:173)
`come this deficiency, two common approaches have been exploited: 1) to develop batteries
`with greater specific energy, and 2) to proceed with the hybrid principle.
`
`The questions of batteries are discussed in Chapters 10 and 11 of History of the Electric
`Automobile: Battery-Only Powered Cars2 and will receive little treatment here. Figure 2.1
`illustrates two types of hybrid electric vehicles. The drawing to the left is a series type of
`hybrid electric vehicle. It contains an engine-generator, batteries, and an electric motor, the
`torque from which drives the wheels. Energy from the fuel is continually being transformed
`and stored as chemical energy and potential electric energy in the batteries. In contrast, with
`the parallel hybrid electric system, the petro-engine may uniquely drive the wheels, or together
`or separately the electric motor supplies torque to the wheels.
`
`'. :
`
`In general for both series and parallel hybrid electric vehicles, the supplemental energy source
`may be any of the five sources cited above. Years ago, I discussed the most recent, solar
`assist.3 Because series and parallel systems both have possible economic niches, if indeed
`hybrid electric vehicles are ever viable, both series and parallel types may be found in service.4
`
`..
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`History of the Electric Automobile: Hybrid Electric Vehicles
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`FUEL TANK---.,--~~~~~~~~-. C:
`
`ENGINE
`
`GENERATOR---it-tt---i
`
`POWER CONDITIONER
`MOTOR--+-~::;;:;.i..-1
`CONTROL -+-t11
`
`0 U
`
`;J
`
`FUEL TANK
`___ J--+--~+-1.,._ENGINE
`
`14-----+-*-0NE-WAY CLUTCH
`
`i--~~~4---MOTOR
`
`r-~--t--t--~-~4---CONTROL
`
`l""-----+-TRANSMISSION
`
`BATTERY PACK
`
`t-o---t-t-----+--BATTERY PACK
`
`SERIES
`
`PARALLEL
`
`Figure 2.1. In a series hybrid electric car (left), the engine drives a generator charging
`a battery. In a parallel system (right), the engine may directly couple the wheels.
`(Briggs & Stratton, 14 August 1995)
`
`Competition for Nascent Power Systems
`
`Only four years after Trouve's original electric vehicle, described in Chapter 1, the initial
`gasoline-powered vehicle was tested in 1885. While 55 years would elapse from the operation
`of Thomas Davenport's electric motor shown in Ref. 2, the first to perform useful work,5
`until Trouve's electric tricycle, the time span from N.A. Otto's four-cycle internal combustion
`engine of 1867 and a vehicle so powered was only 18 years.
`
`From 1890 until 1905, a period of approximately 15 years, electric vehicles, internal combus(cid:173)
`tion powered automobiles, and steam cars were highly competitive in America. On the other
`hand, in Europe, internal combustion cars were preferred from the beginning for many rea(cid:173)
`sons: 1) the well-built Roman roads linking cities already existed in many parts of western
`Europe and thus range was important; 2) military-inspired highways were well maintained; 3) in
`contrast, roads linking American cities were largely unimproved and, with long periods of
`impassability, railroads were almost the only form of American inter-city travel; 4) moreover,
`the less severe European climate was more forgiving of water-cooled internal combustion
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`The History of the Petro-Electric Vehicle
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`engines; 5) Edison, Tesla, and Westinghouse gave later-evolving America a leadership in elec(cid:173)
`tric power, while Europe was more oriented to earlier developed steam power; 6) with a range
`sufficient for the small American cities of that time, the electric vehicle could flourish; and
`7) possibly, too, with less regulation always present in a frontier-inspired society, entrepreneur(cid:173)
`ship could more readily prosper.
`
`Although an all electric vehicle could potentially displace only a small percentage of a petroleum(cid:173)
`fueled personal vehicle market, it is presently perceived as occupying a restricted niche. On
`the other hand, the hybrid electric automobile is less subject to range limitation. With as little as
`20% of the petroleum fuel of an internal combustion automobile, a hybrid electric vehicle may
`be discerned as viable. 6 The market is expected to make its own judgment. As the philoso(cid:173)
`pher George Santayana wrote7:
`
`"Those who know not the past are condemned to repeat it."
`
`Therefore, what does history relate about the petro-electric drive system, two sample vehicles
`of which were ordered by the U.S. Department of Energy under the 1976 Electric Vehicle
`Act, and the many petro-electric cars for which a purchase order was issued by the City of
`Los Angeles in 1992?
`
`The gasoline-electric car, currently referred to as the petro-electric vehicle, initially was an
`attempt to combine the high efficiency of the electric drive train with the remarkable energy
`storage of petroleum fuels. Presently, electric cars have a drive train efficiency of 90%,
`whereas a similar figure for the internal combustion automobile is probably 15%-a factor of
`nearly six in favor of electricity. As for fuel of both systems, the lead-acid battery in its storage
`of electric energy requires 1 kg (2.2 lb) for 125 Btu.a On the other hand, 1 kg (2.2 lb) of
`gasoline provides 45,300 Btu-a factor of 360 in favor of gasoline. When relative drive-train
`efficiencies are considered, there remains an enhancement factor of 70 to 80 in favor of
`gasoline. That large number almost shouts the reason why internal combustion cars will be
`here for many years. However, muting the above statement, and particularly in the last
`decade of the twentieth century, is the growing air pollution of urban areas largely as a result
`of the ubiquitous internal combustion vehicle. The petro-electric vehicle, the thought goes,
`could be petro-powered in country operation and electrically powered in urban regions, with
`the parallel type, hybrid electric automobile. If of series construction, the vehicle might have a
`low-polluting, constant-speed internal combustion engine driving a small generator that is con(cid:173)
`tinually replenishing the battery. Power from the battery would supply the electric motor.
`
`The First Petro-Electric Vehicle
`
`Almost surely the first petro-electric car was built by Justus B. Entz, chief engineer of the Electric
`Storage Battery Company of Philadelphia. The date was 4 May 1897, as the chalkboard
`
`a A common, 60-lb (27-kg) lead-acid automobile battery will emit approximately '1000 watt-hours. Thus, 1 kWh=
`3413 Btu; 3413 Btu+ 27 kg= 125 Btu/kg.
`
`19
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`History of the Electric Automobile: Hybrid Electric Vehicles
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`drawing in the Pope Manufacturing Company indicates in Figure 2.2. His concept was not the
`simple approach of the early European designers of an internal combustion engine powering a
`generator which in turn charged a battery that drove the motor-a series type. As Hiram
`Percy Maxim, who early designed and built both electric and gasoline-powered automobiles,
`describes this vehicle:8
`
`Entz proposed a generator with a revolving field as well as a revolving armature. This
`(assembly) was made to act as a clutch. When the armature of this generator was short(cid:173)
`circuited, its armature and revolving field became electrically locked together, and the
`engine drove the carriage through this locked clutch on what corresponds to high gear.
`When a grade was encountered, or for any other reason more driving torque was required,
`Entz eased off the short circuiting more or less, which permitted the clutch to slip. This
`slipping generated a current, and this current was fed to the electric motor, which was
`thereby enabled to help out the direct drive from the engine.
`
`After this explanation, Maxim, as did many modern designers, wondered why all this electric
`gear was required when a simple 'gear box' (the transmission) could obviate the above and
`yield the drive system of a modern electric car.
`
`In 1898, all was ready for testing the new car. Maxim, Entz, and a mechanic drove 'slug(cid:173)
`gishly,' the former relates, from the Pope factory to Capitol Street in Hartford, Connecticut.
`While on the street, Maxim left the vehicle for some reason and his foot caught on a wire to the
`ammeter. This breaking of the electrical circuit caused an electric arc to pierce the copper
`
`Figure 2.2. Entz's blackboard masterpiece of the petro-electric car. (Ref 8, copyright 1937
`by Harper & Brothers; copyright renewed 1964 by Percy.Jvfaxim Lee; reprinted by
`·
`permission of HarperCollins Publishers, Inc.)
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`The History of the Petro-Electric Vehicle
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`gasoline tank, and a stream of gasoline was ignited, burning the vehicle with the 7 gallons
`(26 liters) of contained gasoline. The Pope Manufacturing Company made no more petro(cid:173)
`electric vehicles. However, Entz's idea did not die, according to Maxim. The concept even(cid:173)
`tually became the Owen Magnetic Car.
`
`The Belgian and the French Petro-Electric Cars
`
`To implement the claimed advantages of the hybrid electric systems previously cited, both the
`Pieper establishment in Liege, Belgium, and the Vendovelli & Priestly Electric Carriage Com(cid:173)
`pany of France announced petro-electric vehicles at the Paris Salon of 1899.9 In the Pieper
`vehicle, a small, air-cooled gasoline engine was forward and coupled to an electric motor
`powered by lead-acid batteries. IO (See Figure 2.3.) Initially, the gasoline engine was started
`by the electric motor (probably among the first electric starters). When the vehicle was
`standing or coasting, the engine charged the battery. In contrast, when a hill was encountered
`requiring power greater than the air-cooled engine could provide, as the carriage slowed,
`additional electrical power flowed to the motor from the battery which provided supplemen(cid:173)
`tary torque to the rear wheels. In these early days, if the engine failed, and at this time all
`internal combustion engines were 'cranky' ( a term used at the time), the reliable electric motor
`could be the power source to bring home the carriage!
`
`I
`!, ,,
`
`I
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`Figure 2.3. The Pieper Stanhope. (Ref. 9)
`
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`History of the Electric Automobile: HybridElef:tric Vehicles
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`The Pieper vehicle was of the parallel configuration. In contrast, the Vendovelli & Priestly
`carriage was of the series type and was three-wheeled. The two rear-wheels were each
`powered by a separate electric motor, the batteries being carried beneath the carriage to
`yield a range of 40 miles (64 km). For longer trips, a portable 308-lb (140-kg) engine(cid:173)
`generator was added, consisting of a 3/4-hp De Dion-Bouton engine coupled to a generator
`capable of supplying continuously 10 amps at 110 volts (1.1 kW of power) to the battery.
`The engine/generator, the article stated, was also capable of supplying power sufficient to
`illuminate 15 IO-candle (130-lumens) lamps, a phrasing used by the U.S. Army in purchase
`of its first electric vehicle in 1898 from the Woods Electric Vehicle Company of Chicago, as
`cited in Ref. 2.
`
`Particularly unique to the Vendovelli hansom, however, was the steering mechanism. Steering
`was effected by utilizing the reversibility of the differential gears. By acting on the latter, one
`wheel revolved faster than the other, and the vehicle would turn with a