HANDBOOK OF
`
`PLASTIC POAMS
`
`Types, Properties
`Marefectere sed Appticeties:
`
`NOTES PLELICATIONS
`
`EX1057
`Yita v. MacNeil
`
`IPR2020-01142
`
`EX1057
`Yita v. MacNeil
`IPR2020-01142
`
`

`

`HANDBOOK OF PLASTIC FOAMS
`
`

`

`     
`This book belongs to Stephen Merrill
`
`
`(smerrill@sternekessler.com)
`
`Copyright Elsevier 2021
`  
`
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`
`his book belongs to Stephen Merrill (smerrill@sternekessler com)
`       
`
`Copyright Elsevier 2021
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`
`

`

`HANDBOOK OF
`
`PLASTIC FOAMS
`
`Types, Properties,
`
`Manufacture and Applications
`
`Edited by
`
`Arthur H. Landrock(ret.)
`
`Plastics Technical Evaluation Center (PLASTEC}
`Picatinny Arsenal
`Dover, New Jersey
`
`NOYES PUBLICATIONS
`Park Ridge, New Jersey, USA,
`
`his book belongs to StephenMerrill (smerrill@sternekessler com)
`       
`
`Copyright Elsevier 2021
`  
`
`

`

`Copyright © 1995 by Noyes Publications
`No part of this book may be reproduced or utilized in
`any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical,
`includiag photocopying, recording or by any informa—
`tion storage and retrieval system, without permission
`in writing from the Publisher.
`Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 94-15236
`ISBN: 0-8155-1357-7
`Printed in the United States
`
`Published in the United States of America by
`Noyes Publications
`Mill Road, Park Ridge, New Jersey 07656
`
`10987654321
`
`Library of Congress Catalogiag~in-Publication Data
`
`Handbook of plastic foams : types, properties, manufacture, and
`applications / [edited by] Arthur H. Landrock.
`pcm.
`Includes bibliographical references and index,
`ISBN 0-8155-1357-7
`1. Plastic foams.
`[. Landrock, Arthur H.
`TP1183.F6H35 1995
`668.4'93-—dce20
`
`94-15236
`CIP
`
`his book belongs to StephenMerrill (smerrill@sternekessler com)
`       
`
`Copyright Elsevier 2021
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`
`

`

`Dedication
`
`To my wife, Rose—Marie,
`
`for her unfailing support and understanding
`
`his book belongs to Stephen Merrill (smerrill@sternekessler com)
`       
`
`Copyright Elsevier 2021
`  
`
`

`

`This page intentionally left blank
`    
`
`his book belongs to Stephen Merrill (smerrill@sternekessler com)
`       
`
`Copyright Elsevier 2021
`  
`
`

`

`PREFACE
`
`
`
`This book is intended to be useful to anyone working with plastic
`foams (cellular plastics), and to a lesser extent, elastomeric foams. The
`emphasis is on practical, rather than theoretical aspects. The books should
`prove helpful to materials enginecrs, chemists, chemical engineers, sales
`personnel.
`It may also find usc as a textbook or reference source in
`materials engineering courses. The book is a comprehensive technical
`treatment of plastic foams and covers information not available in any
`other single source.
`A brief description of the books contents may be helpful. Chapter 1
`by M. Okoroafor and K.C. Frisch is an introduction and also covers the
`subject of foam formation. The chapter includes a discussion of the
`Montreal Protocol mandating the development of foams with substantially
`reduced CFC content by 1995. Chapter 2 is a comprehensive discussion
`of thermosetting foams of all types, with the emphasis on urcthane and
`phenolic foams. The authors, K. Ashida and K. Iwasaki, are recognized
`authorities in their fields of specialization. This chapter presents extensive
`discussions of such fields as composites and syntactic foams. There is
`some overlap between this chapter and topics covered in later chapters,
`but the treatments are different.
`Chapter 3 and all subsequent chapters were prepared by the editor,
`AH. Landrock. Chapter 3 covers all
`types of thermoplastic foams,
`including rigid, semi-rigid, and structural
`foams. Chapter 4 briefly
`discusses
`elastomeric
`foams. Chapter
`5 discusses
`a number of
`miscellaneous and specialty foams, many of which were also covered in
`Chapter 2.
`Chapter 6 covers solvent cementing of thermoplastic foams and
`adhesive bonding of all foam types,
`including thermosets. Bonding of
`plastic foams to non—plastic substrates is also covered. Additives, fillers
`and reinforcements arc covered in Chapter 7, a chapter of 37 pages. This
`chapter covers antistatic agents, slowing agents, catalysts, fire rctardants,
`mold—release agents, nucicating agents, reinforcements, and stabilizers.
`¥i
`
`       
`
`  
`
`

`

`villi
`
`Preface
`
`The problem of ozone depletion considered in the Montreal Protocol is
`discusscd in detail. Chapter 8 considers methods of manufacture,
`including molding methods, spraying,
`frothing,
`laminating, structural
`foam molding,
`syntactic
`foam preparations,
`and
`foam-in—place
`techniques. Chapter 9 on sources of
`information covers journals,
`manufacturers’ bulletins,
`technical conferences
`and their published
`procecding, seminars and workshops, standardization activities,
`trade
`associations, consultants, and information centers, and books.
`Chapter 10 on test methods is an expansion of thelistings of standard
`test methods presented in Chapter 11. The first section of this chapter
`lists, in alphabetic order, 130 properties of cellular plastics and elastomers
`and tabulates the standard test methods used for cach. Only number
`designations are given. The second section is a somewhat detailed
`discussion, also in alphabetical order, of 22 foam properties tested by
`standard test methods. The third section is a brief invited presentation of
`several non-standardized test methods currently in use. Chapter 11 on
`standardization documentslists published specifications, test methods and
`other related standards used in the U.S.,
`in addition to British standards
`and ISO International Standards. A total of 361 standards are covered. A
`glossary of 221 terms is included.
`I wish to express my appreciation to Messrs. William C. Tanner and
`Harry S. Katz for their helpful suggestions in the planning of this book.
`Mr. George Narita, Vice President and Executive Editor of Noyes
`Publications, has been most helpful
`in the development of the book.
`Lastly,
`I must express appreciation ta my wife, Rose-Marie,
`for her
`patience and understanding during the many months spent on the book.
`
`Sparta, New Jersey
`November 1994
`
`Arthur H. Landrock
`
`       
`
`  
`
`

`

`
`
`CONTRIBUTORS
`
`
`Arthur H. Landrock(ret.}
`PLASTEC
`Picatinny Arsenal!
`Dover, New Jerscy
`
`Michael O. Okoroafor
`
`Technical Center
`PPG Industries, Inc.
`Monroeville, Pennsylvania
`
`Kaneyoshi Ashida
`Polymer Institute
`University of Detroit Mercy
`Detroit, Michigan
`
`Kurt ©. Frisch
`Polymer Technologies, Inc.
`University of Detroit Mercy
`Detroit, Michigan
`
`Kadzuo Iwasaki
`Iwasaki Technical Consulting
`Lab., Ltd.
`Ohta City
`Gumma-Prefecture, Japan
`
`his book belongs to StephenMerrill (smerrill@sternekessler com)
`       
`
`Copyright Elsevier 2021
`  
`
`

`

`Notice
`
`To the best of our knowledge the information in this
`publication is accurate; however, the Publisher does
`not assume any responsibility or
`liability for the
`accuracy or completeness of, or consequences arising
`from, such information. This book is intended for
`informational purposes only. Mention of trade names
`or commercial products does net constitute endorse—
`ment or recommendation for use by the Publisher.
`Fina! determination of the suitability of any in—
`formation or product for use contemplated by any
`user, and the manner of that use,
`is the sole re-
`sponsibility of the uscr. We recommend that anyone
`intending to rely on any recommendation of materials
`or procedures mentioned in this publication should
`satisfy himself as to such suitability, and that he can
`meet all applicable safety and health standards.
`
`his book belongs to StephenMerrill (smerrill@sternekessler com)
`       
`
`Copyright Elsevier 2021
`  
`
`

`

`
`
`CONTENTS
`
`1.
`
`INTRODUCTION TO FOAMS AND FOAM
`FORMATION .. 002.0000 200 ce
`Michael O. Okoroafor and Kurt C. Frisch
`Introduction... 0... es i
`CFC Effects and Alternatives ................... 3
`
` ees 1
`
`Fundamentals of Foam Formation ............... 5
`References
`.. 0.0... 0.00002 ee ees 9
`
`2. THERMOSETTING FOAMS .............-.......-. 11
`Kaneyoshi Ashida and Kadzuo fwasaki
`Introduction (fy Kaneyoshi Ashida) .............. lt
`Isocyanate-Based Foams (by Kaneyoshi Ashida) ... .. 13
`Introduction .......... 0. .02..0. 0.00002 eee 13
`Raw Materials for Isaocyanate-Based Foams ....... 16
`Polyisocyanates 2.0... ee 16
`Polyols 600 ees 21
`Blowing Agents ...........-......2-0000- 24
`Catalysts 2.2.2.0... 0. ee ee ee ees 30
`Surfactants ........0..20. 000202000 38
`Epoxides .......0... 00.0.0 02 2202 ee eee 39
`Flame Retardants ....... 0.0.0... 000 ee ee eee 39
`Polyurethane Foams ..........0..2.0.-020000- 40
`Preparation 6... ees 40
`Processes of Urethane Foam Preparation ........ 42
`Flexible Urethane Foams ..........2.....00..0005 46
`Introduction ©... . 0... ee ee ee ees 46
`Classification .......0..0. 00000222 ees 46
`Hand-—Mixing Process .............-...-.-- 47
`Materials and Equipment ................... 47
`Foaming Procedures
`...........-.-.-0-2-05- 47
`Foam Properties and Testing Methods .......... 49
`xi
`
`his book belongs to StephenMerrill (smerrill@sternekessler com)
`       
`
`Copyright Elsevier 2021
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`
`

`

`
`
`xii«=©6.Contents
`
`Applications of Flexible Urethane Foams ........ 31
`Slabstock Foams «2.0.2.0... 002020002 eee 51
`Molded Flexible Urcthane Foams ...............- 56
`Hot-—Molded Foam and Cold~Molded Foam ...... 58
`High-Resilient Foam (HR Foam) ............. 60
`Dual—Hardness Molded Foam ...............- 63
`Microcellular Urethanc Elastomers .............-. 63
`Preparation of Microccllular Foams ........-..- 63
`Integral-Skin Flexible Urethane Foams ........... 64
`Preparation of Integral-Skin Flexible Foams
`..... 64
`Properties of Integral-Skin Flexible Urethane
`Foams... ees 65
`Flame Retardant Flexible Foams .............. 66
`Non-CFC-Blown Flexible Urethane Foams
`....... 67
`Viscoelastic Foams and Energy~Absorbing Foams ... 68
`Polyolefinic-Polyol~Based Flexible Foams ........ 69
`Semi-Rigid (or Semi—-Flexible) Foams ........... 69
`Manufacturing Process... 2.0.0... 2.00000 e ee 69
`Applications .. 20... eee 7
`Rigid Urcthane Foams
`..................00048 71
`Introduction .. 0.0.0.0 020. eee 71
`Preparation... 2. ee 71
`Production Technologics of Rigid Urethane
`Foam . 2... 2-00.00. eee ee ene 78
`Properties of Rigid Urethane Foams ........... 78
`Miscellancous Urethane Foams ................ 85
`Isocyanurate—Modified Rigid Urethane Foams .... 8&5
`Isocyanurate—Modificd Flexible Urethane Foams
`.. &5
`Urethane—Based IPN Foams ................. 85
`Urethane-Based Hybrid Foams ............... 86
`Urethane/Oxazolidonc Foams ............-05. 88
`Polyisocyanurate Foams
`.......-...-..--000505 88
`Introduction ©... 2... 2.2 ee eee &8
`Principles of Urcthane Modification ........... 91
`Preparation... 2.22.2 eee 97
`Properties... 2... ee ee eee 99
`Processing .- 2... eee ee ee 99
`Oxazolidonc—Madified Isacyanurate Foams ..... 105
`Amide-Modified Isocyanurate Foams ......... 109
`Carbodiimide—~Modified Isocyanurate Foams
`..-.. 110
`Imide-Modified Isocyanurate Foams .......... 111
`
`       
`
`  
`
`

`

`Contents
`
`xiii
`
`Filled Isocyanurate Foams ...........2..... 111
`Polyurea Foams .......-..-....0.-.....--. 114
`Polycarbodiimide Foams ................-..-. 115
`Polyoxazolidune Foams .......-.......0..-.-. 117
`Polyimide Foams ...........-.....2....-0-, 117
`Polyamide Foams ................0.2--20005 120
`References for Isocyanate-Based Foams ........... 122
`Pyranyl Foams (by Kaneyoshi Ashida) ........... 140
`Introduction . 2... 2... ee ee 140
`Chemistry of Pyranyl Foams ..........-.-..... 140
`Raw Materials ........-.0 0.0.2. .000 02 cee 140
`Foam Preparation ©... 0.60. eee 142
`Propertics of Pyranyl Foams ...............-. 142
`Mechanical Properties .................-5. 143
`Thermal Conductivity .................... 143
`Cell Structure and Permeability ............-, 144
`Dimensional Stability
`............0....0-0. 145
`Thermal Stability
`..............-....0004- 145
`Flame Retardance ........-2.... 000220000. 145
`Chemical Resistance ...... 2.000.402 ee eee 145
`Possible Applications ......-....002......... 146
`Advantages of Pyranyl Foams ...........-.... 146
`Disadvantages of Pyranyl Foams .............. 147
`References for Pyranyl Foams ................-. 147
`Syntactic Foams (by Kaneyoshi Ashida) .......... 147
`Introduction»... ee eee 147
`Preparation of Hollow Microsphercs ..........-.. 148
`Matrix Resins
`........00-2. 0.0020 eee eee 154
`Thermosetting Resins
`..........-...0.000. 154
`Thermoplastic Resins
`...........0.2..0 00004 154
`Preparation of Syntactic Foams ............... 154
`Epoxy Resin-Hollow Glass Microsphere
`Syntactic Foam... 2.0... ....2.---02 0005. 154
`Phenolic Resin—Based Syntactic Foam ......... 155
`Polyimide—Based Syntactic Foam ............ 155
`Syntactic-Foam Prepregs ................-. 156
`Polystyrenc-Epoxy Syntactic Foam ........... 156
`Effect of Matrix Resins on Physical Properties ... 157
`Properties of Syntactic Foams .......-......4. 157
`Applications 2.0.0... ee ee eee 162
`References for Syntactic Foams .............-.... 162
`
`       
`
`  
`
`

`

`xiv
`
`Contents
`
`Foamed Composites (by Kaneyoshi Ashida} ....... 163
`Introduction... 2.2.2... 2 ee ee ee ee 163
`Raw Materials 2... 00.6026 ees 164
`
`Matrix Plastic Foams .................0... 164
`Reinforcing Materials ................-... 166
`Blowing Agents ©... 0.00. eee eee 166
`Surfactants 2... ees 167
`Preparation of Foamed Composites ............. 167
`Physical Properties ..........2..0..-.---0+4-. 171
`Propertics of Unidirectional Type Composites .... 173
`Applications ........ 0.0.0.0... 0.0 179
`References for Foamced Composites .............. 180
`Phenolic Foams (by Kadzwo Iwasaki) ............ 183
`Introduction . 6... ee eee 183
`History 60 183
`Classification 2.0.02. .0..0000 0000; eee 183
`Chemistry 2.0... 2 ee eee 184
`Material Chemistry .........0.. 0.02020 0008 184
`Resol-Type Foam Chemistry ............... 185
`Novolac-Type Foam Chemistry ............. 188
`Foaming Mechanism ...........-.-.-..--. 190
`Raw Materials
`. 0... ke es 191
`Materials for Resol-Type Foams ............ 191
`Materials for Benzylic Ethcr-Type Foams ...... 195
`Materials for Novolac-Type Foam ........... 195
`Foaming, Processes and Facilities .............. 197
`Foaming Process of Resol-Type Foam ........ 197
`Manufacturing Facilitics .............-..00- 200
`Foaming Process of Novelac-Type Foam ...... 203
`Processing Facilities .........,.2...-00-4. 204
`ProperticS 2... ees 204
`Foaming Characteristics .............-.,...- 204
`Gencral Properties... 2... 0. ee ee. 206
`Thermal Propertics ...-...........2.0005. 209
`Flame Retardance ..........--.2-.0.00200- 211
`Drying .. 2.2.2.0... eee eee 212
`Chemical Resistance ...........-...- 00005 212
`Demand and Applications ...............+-.. 214
`Demand ........- 0.20 2c cee eee eee 214
`Applications 02... ee ee 214
`Conclusion .... 2... 2.0. ce ee ee ee ee 218
`
`       
`
`  
`
`

`

`Contents
`
`xv
`
`References for Phenolic Foams ................. 219
`
`3. THERMOPLASTIC FOAMS .................... 221
`Arthur H. Landrock
`Introduction
`.............0.-...2-.....00005. 221
`Structural Foams (Rigid Foams) ..............- 221
`Introduction ...........-2.-0-0 000. eee eee 221
`Structural-Foam Types .............-...--.- 223
`Phenylene Oxide Alloys (Modified Poly-
`phenylene Oxide)... 2... eee. 223
`Polycarbonate ... 2... 2.020002. 2. 2000002 225
`Acrylonitrile-Butadiene-Styrenc (ABS) ........ 225
`Acetal 2.0. eee 226
`Thermoplastic Polyester (Polybutylene
`Terephthalate) (PBT) ............. 0.00024 227
`Polyetherimide .................0.-0.0005 227
`Polystyrene (PS) .........0.--.2222. 0000 0 228
`Additional Rigid-Foam Types ................ 228
`Semi-Rigid Foams ................-2.-...... 228
`Polyolefin Foams -..........02....-0020000- 228
`Low-Density Polyethylene Foams
`........... 230
`High-Density Polyethylene Foams ........... 232
`Polypropylene Foams
`..................-..- 232
`Cross—Linked Foamed Resins .........-..... 233
`Tonomer Foams .. 1... 0. eee ee es 234
`Polystyrene Foams (Low-Density) ............. 235
`Extruded—Polystyrene Foam ................ 235
`Expandable Polystyrene (EPS} for Molded
`Foam 2.0... es 236
`Vinyl Foams ... 2.00.00 0002 ee 239
`Open—Cell Vinyl] Foams .................. 239
`Closed—Cell Vinyl Foams ..........-...05. 240
`Cross—Linked Vinyl Foams ................ 241
`Misccllancous Foams ............2-00 0 eee 241
`Cellular Cellulose Acetate (CCA) ............ 241
`Polysulfone Foams ..................-005 242
`References 2.2... 0. ees 243
`
`4. ELASTOMERIC FOAMS .....................- 246
`Arthur ff. Landrock
`Introduction
`...........-.....,.....2.2.--.2 246
`
`       
`
`  
`
`

`

`xvi
`
`Contents
`
`General 2... ee ens 246
`Sponge Rubber .......... 0.0.0.0 0000.2 ae 246
`Cellular Rubber .........--. 22.2.0 0 eee 247
`Comparison of Cellular-Rubber Products ........ 247
`Types of Elastomeric Foams ........-....-...4. 248
`Neoprene ..... 0.0.00. 0-0. ee ee 248
`Silicone Foams
`... 2.2... 249
`Silicone Rubber Sponge ....-.......--..4.. 249
`Room-Temperaturc-Foaming Silicone
`Rubbers 2... 00.2002. 00-0002 eee ee 250
`References 2.02.0... 020 eee ee eee 251
`
`5. MISCELLANEOUS AND SPECIALTY FOAMS:
`(Epoxy Foams, Polyester Foams, Silicone Foams,
`Urea-Formaldehyde Foams, Polybenzimidazole,
`Foams, Polyimide Foams, Polyphosphazene Foams,
`and Syntactic Foams)
`.....-...........2-200000- 253
`Arthur H. Landrock
`Epoxy Foams ........ 0... 00.2000 eee eee 253
`Polyester Foams ...........0..0..-...0-0.000-- 254
`Silicone Foams ......................-.-05. 255
`Urea~Formaldehyde (UF) Foams .............. 256
`Polybenzimidazole (PB1) Foams ............... 258
`Polyimide Foams ................-.-2..00000- 259
`Polyphosphazene Foams ..................45. 261
`Syntactic Foams .. 2.22.0... 0.0022 ee eee 263
`References 2.00 ee ees 264
`
`6. SOLVENT CEMENTING AND ADHESIVE
`BONDING OF FOAMS ..................0.-005 267
`Arthur H. Landrock
`
`Introduction ............... 000000002 eee ee 267
`Solvent Cementing .....-......0...000220 cease 267
`Thermoplastic Foam Substraics ............... 268
`Cellular Cellulose Acetate 2.2.0... 00.02.0000. 268
`Acrylonitrile-Butadiene-Styrene (ABS) ........ 269
`Acetal Homopolymer (DELRIN®@) ........... 269
`Acetal Copolymer (CELCON®) ............. 269
`Polyvinyl] Chloride (PVC) ........-...2.4.. 269
`Polycarbonate .. 2.2... eee 269
`Polystyrene 2 ee 269
`
`       
`
`  
`
`

`

`Contents
`
`xvii
`
`. 2.0.2... 0-0. eee eee eee 270
`Polysulfone
`Modified Polyphenylene Oxide (NORYL®) ..... 270
`Polybutylene Terephthalate (PBT) ............ 271
`Polyetherimide (ULTEM®) ................ 271
`Adhesive Bonding ...........-....----0005: 271
`Thermoplastic Foam Substrates .......-........ 271
`Acetal Copolymer (CELCON@) ............. 271
`Acetal Homopolymer (DELRIN®) ........... 272
`Acrylonitrile-Butadiene-Styrene (ABS) ........ 272
`Cellular Cellulose Acetate .........0...0..-. 272
`Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC)
`.....0.0.0.0200.. 272.
`Polycarbonate . 2.2.2... 0... ee ee 273
`Modified Polyphenylene Oxide (NORYL®) ..... 273
`Polystyrene 2... ee eee 273
`Polyethylene and Polypropylene ............. 273
`Tonomer2... 273
`Nylons (Polyamides} ...........2...2.-0-. 273
`Polyctherimide .....--.0.02.....0-.-.-... 274
`Polybutylene Terephthalate (PBT) ............ 274
`Polysulfone
`....-.....2...020....0000-. 274
`Thermosctting Foam Substrates ............. 274
`Polyurethanes 2... ee ee ee 274
`Fpoxies .. 0.0... 2. cee eee ee 275
`Polyester 2.2... ee eee 275
`Phenolic... 0. ee 275
`
`Silicone 2.2... 2. ee 275
`Urea-Formaldchyde 2.22... 2 ee. 275
`Syntactic Foams ..............-.-.2.00-. 275
`References 2.0.0.0 ens 275
`
`7. ADDITIVES, FILLERS AND REINFORCEMENTS ... 278
`Arthur H. Landrock
`Introduction
`........ 20.0.0... eee eee 278
`Antistats (Antistatic Agents) ..............-.--.- 279
`Blowing Agents Foaming Agents} .............. 280
`General6 ees 280
`General Production Mcthods for Blowing Foams ... 281
`Chemical Blowing Agents (CBAs) ............. 282
`Physical Blowing Agents .................-. 283
`Chlorofluorocarbon Liquids (CFCs) ............ 284
`Carbon Dioxide (CO,) ..........2.-....-.. 287
`
`       
`
`  
`
`

`

`xviii
`
`Contents
`
`Flexible Foams .......--.--..---+--++-5- 288
`Rigid Foams... 2.0... ee ee es 289
`Catalysts 2.00.2. eee 293
`General... ee es 293
`Rigid Urethane Foams 2.0.0.0... 200000020 294
`Flexible Urethane Foams ..........-.--.+.-+-- 296
`Fire Retardants (Flame Retardants) ............ 297
`General 0...ee ee 297
`
`Additive Fire Retardants .................... 297
`Reactive Fire Retardants ..........0000 eu eece 299
`Uses of Fire Retardants in Specific Foam Types ... . 300
`Rigid Polyurethane Foams ..........-...... 300
`Flexible Polyurethane Foams ............... 301
`Polystyrene Foams ................-..... 301
`Polyolefin Foams
`........0.0.2 00000 eee ees 302
`Polyvinyl] Chloride (PVC) Foams ............ 302
`Phenolic Foams
`......0.00 0. eee 302
`Urea—Formaldehyde Foams ................ 302
`Mold-Release Agents (Parting Agents) .......... 303
`General... ee ee 303
`External Mold Releases .......2.202...2.2..20...- 303
`Paraffins, Hydrocarbon Waxes .............. 303
`Polyethylene Waxes
`..........-..-.-22-00- 304
`Water-Basc Mold Relcases
`...........-2055 304
`Semi-Permanent Mold Releases .........-... 304
`Nucileating Agents (Nucleators) ................ 304
`Reinforcements .......... 0000. cc uve ea aee 306
`Urethane Foams ...-....--.0 00 eee eee ees 306
`Thermoplastic Structural Foams ....-.......-.. 306
`Stabilizers 6.2.02.2 ee es 308
`Surfactants
`......0... 0.00 e eee eee ae 308
`General... ee ee 308
`Flexible Foam Surfactants ........-..0..0-.+ 005 308
`Rigid Foam Surfactants .............-....... 309
`References 2... 0.0 ce ee 310
`
`8. METHODS OF MANUFACTURE ................ 316
`Arthur H. Landrock
`Introduction
`...........0. 0.00.00. eee ee 316
`Molding .........2. 0.0.0... 02 ee eee 316
`Reaction Injection Molding (RIM) ............. 318
`
`       
`
`  
`
`

`

`Contents
`
` x1x
`
`Liquid Injection Molding (LIM) ............... 318
`Slabstock Molding (Free-Rise Foaming) .........- 319
`Spraying ......2....0..02 00000 e eee ees 320
`Frothing ...........0..0.0 2.0.0.0 0200 eee es 322
`Laminating ........-.--..2-202¢ cence eee 324
`Structural Foam Preparation ................. 325
`Siructural Foam Molding .......... 0.0000 00e 325
`Structural] Foam Extrusion ..........-...-..--.- 327
`Syntactic Foam Preparation .................. 327
`Foam-in-Place (Foam-in—Bag) Techniques
`...... 328
`References ..... 0.000002 eee eee eee 329
`
`9 SOURCES OF INFORMATION .................. 332
`Arthur H. Landrock
`Introduction
`..... 0.0.0.0... 00. ee eee 332
`Journals and Other Periodicals ................ 432
`Books ......... 20.0000: cece eee eee 340
`Conferences, Proceedings, Technical Bulletins,
`and Technica! Reports .............-.....5. 349
`
`10. TEST METHODS ............-....-.--.------- 354
`Arthur Fi. Landrock
`Introduction
`.......0.... 0.02.00. cee eee 354
`Compilation of Standard Test Methods .......... 355
`Discussion of Selected Test Methods ............ 371
`Combustion Properties (Flammability) (Smoke
`Evolution)... 0... ee ees 376
`ASTM D 2843 for Smoke Density ........... 376
`ASTM D 4100—Gravimetric Determination of
`Smoke Particulates .. 0... .0.0.0.00..2 00000. 377
`ASTM E 662 NBS (NIST) Smoke Density Test
`.. 377
`ASTM D 2863 Oxygen Index Test ........... 378
`ASTM D 3014 Flame Height, Time of Burning,
`and Loss of Weight of Rigid Thermoset
`Cellular Plastics,
`in a Vertical Position
`(Butler Chimney Test) ........-......... 379
`ASTM D 3675 Surface Flammability of Flexible
`Cellular Materials Using a Radiant Heat
`Energy Source 2.2. 2 ee 379
`ASTM D 3894 Small Comer Test........-.... 379
`ASTM D 3574 Methods of Testing Flexible
`
`       
`
`  
`
`

`

`xx
`
`Contents
`
`......2...........205. 380
`Cellular Materials
`ASTM E 8&4 Steiner Tunnel Test ...........-- 380
`ASTM E 162 Radiant-Panel Test ............ 380
`ASTM E 286 Eight-Foot Tunnel Test ......... 380
`ASTM E 906 Heat and Visible-Smoke—Release
`Rate Test 2.0... 0.2 ce ee ee 381
`UL 94 Appendix A—Horizontal Burning Test
`for Classifying Foamed Matcrials 94HBF,
`94 RF-1, or 94 BF-2 1. ee 381
`BS 5946 Punking Behavior of Phenol-Formal-
`dehyde Foam 2... ee ee 381
`Compression/Deflection Properties ............. 381
`Constant-Deflection—Compression-Set Test ..... 382
`indentation—Force—Deflection (IFD)} (ILD) Test
`(to Specified Deflection) ... 2.0.0... .0..00. 382
`Indentation—Force-Deflection (IFD) (ILD) Test
`(to Specified Force) 6... ee 382
`Compressive Properties of Rigid Ccllular
`PlasticS 2... ee ee ee 382
`MIL-HDBK-304--Chapter 6 ............... 382
`Fatigue... ee 383
`Fragmentation (Friability) (Dusting) ............ 384
`Flexibility (of Cushioning Materials) ........... 384
`Flexural Properties ..........0..0.-..22-0.0035 384
`Fungal Resistance... 6... eee 385
`Hydrolytic Stability ©... 00.000. ee 385
`Impact Strength (Brittle Strength) .............. 385
`Open-Cell Content .... 0.2.0.0... 00 .2.22000. 385
`Resilience (Ball-Rebound Test) ............... 386
`Tear Resistance (Tear Strength) ............... 386
`Tension Test ...........0 200.0002 eee ee eee 387
`Water Absorption .........-2.........2-0-5- 387
`Water-Vapor Transmission ..........-....--- 388
`Special Non-Standardized Test Methods ......... 388
`Thermal Analysis ........-.....-0...-02000-. 389
`Differential Thermal Analysis (DTA}.......... 389
`References ©.ee ee es 393
`
`11, STANDARDIZATION DOCUMENTS .............. 395
`Arthur H. Landrock
`
`Introduction .................- 0.202.000 03 395
`
`       
`
`  
`
`

`

`Contents
`
`xxi
`
`...........-...00200-00: 400
`Industry Standards
`American Society for Testing and Materials ....... 400
`ASTM Practices, Definitions, Abbreviations,
`Guides, Classifications, ete. .............-.. 419
`Underwriters Laboratories (UL) ........5.....-. 425
`Military Specifications .............2.0..0... 425
`Military Standards ............. 0.000.000 eae 436
`Military Handbooks ...............-........ 437
`Federa) Specifications ....................-.. 439
`Federal Standards .... 2.2. ..0....0.0000000-- 442
`British Standards
`.. 2.2.0.0... 20 e eee 442
`ISO Standards ..........02...2.0....0.0.008. 447
`References 2.0.0.0... ee ee ee 454
`
`GLOSSARY ......000..0.0. 00.00.0200... 00.2 eee eee 456
`Arthur H. Landrock
`ReferenctS 2.00200 es 479
`
`INDEX 260et ett tes 482
`
`his book belongs to StephenMerrill (smerrill@sternekessler com)
`       
`
`Copyright Elsevier 2021
`  
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`This page intentionally left blank
`    
`
`his book belongs to Stephen Merrill (smerrill@sternekessler com)
`       
`
`Copyright Elsevier 2021
`  
`
`

`

`1 I
`
`NTRODUCTION TO FOAMS AND FOAM
`FORMATION
`
`Michael O. Okoroafor and Kurt C. Frisch
`
`INTRODUCTION
`
`Cellular plastics or plastic foams, also referred to as expanded or
`sponge plastics, generally consist of a minimum of two phases, a solid—
`polymer matrix and a gascous phase derived from a blowing agent. The
`solid-polymer phase may be either inorganic, organic or organometallic.
`There may be more than one solid phase present, which can be composed
`of polymer alloys or polymer blends based on two or more polymers, or
`which can be in the form of interpenetrating polymer networks (iPNs)
`which consist of at least two crosslinked polymer networks, or a pscudo—
`or semi-IPN formed from a combination of at least one or more linear
`polymers with crosslinkcd polymers not inked by means of covalent
`bonds.
`
`Other solid phases may be present in the foam in the form of
`fillers, cither fibrous or other-shaped fillers which may be of inorganic
`origin, e.g. glass, ceramic or metallic, or they may be polymeric in
`nature. Foams may be ficxible or rigid, depending upon whether their
`glass-transition temperatures arc below or above room tempcraturc,
`which,
`in turn, depends upon their chemical composition, degree of
`crystallanity, and degree of crosslinking.
`Intermediate between flexible
`and rigid foams arc semi-rigid or semi-flexible foams.
`The cell
`
`       
`
`  
`
`

`

`2 Handbook of Plastic Foams
`
`geometry, ie. open vs. closed cell, size and shape, greatly affect the foam
`properties.
`Thus, closed-cell
`foams are most suitable for
`thermal
`insulation, while open—cell foams are best for acoustical insulation.
`Plastic foams can be produced in a great varicty of densities,
`ranging from about 0.1 Jb/ft* (1.6 kg/m’) to over 60 lb/ft* (960 kg/m’) (1).
`Since the mechanical-strength properties are generally proportional to the
`foam densities,
`the applications of these foams usually determine which
`range of foam densities should be produced. Thus, for rigid foam, load-
`bearing applications require high densitics and {or} fiber-reinforced
`foams, while low densitics arc usually uscd for thermal insulation.
`The production of polymeric~foam materials can be carried out
`by either mechanical, chemical, or physical means. Some of the most
`commonly used methods are the following (2):
`
`1. Thermal decomposition of chemical blowing agents gen-
`erating either nitrogen or carbon dioxide, or both, by
`application of heat, or as the result of the exothermic
`heat of reaction during polymerization.
`2. Mechanical whipping of gases (frothing) into a polymer
`system (melt, solution or suspension) which hardens,
`either by catalytic action or heat, or both, thus entrapping
`the gas bubbles in the polymer matrix.
`3. Volatilization of low-boiling liquids such as fluoro—
`carbons or methylene chloride within the polymer mass
`as the result of the exothermic heat of reaction, or by
`application of heat.
`4. Volatilization of yases produced by the exothermic heat
`of reaction during polymerization such as occurs in the
`reaction of isocyanate with water to form carbon dioxide.
`5. Expansion of dissolved gas
`in a polymer mass on
`reduction of pressure in the system.
`Incorporation of hollow microspheres into a polymer
`mass. The microspheres may consist of cither hollow
`glass or hollow plastic beads.
`7. Expansion of gas-filled beads by application of heat or
`expansion of these beads in a polymer mass by the heat
`of reaction, ¢.g. expansion of polystyrenc beads in a
`polyurcthane or epoxy resin system.
`
`6.
`
`The production of foams can take place by many different techniques.
`These may include (3):
`
`       
`
`  
`
`

`

`Introduction to Foams and Foam Formation
`
`3
`
`im-
`
`sOGesOON
`
`1. Continuous slab-stock production by pouring or
`pingement, using multi-component foam machincs.
`2. Compression molding of foams.
`3. Reaction-injection molding (RIM), usually by impinge
`ment.
`4. Foaming-in-place by pouring from a dual— or multi-
`component head.
`. Spraying of foams.
`. Extrusion of foams using expandable beads or pellets.
`. Injection molding of expandable beads or pellets.
`. Rotational casting of foams.
`. Frothing of foams, cither by introduction of air or of a
`low-boiling volatile
`solvent
`(e.g. dichlorodifluoro—
`methane, F-12).
`10. Lamination of foams (foam—board production).
`11. Production of foam composites.
`12. Precipitation foam processes where a polymer phasc is
`formed by polymerization or precipitation from a liquid
`which is later allowed to escape.
`
`It should be recognized that almost every thermoplastic and
`thermoset resin may be produced today in cellular form by means of the
`mechanisms and processes cited above. The physical properties of the
`foams reflect
`in many ways those of the neat polymers,
`taking into
`account the effects of density and ccll geometry.