Materials Science
`of Polymers
`for Engineers
`
`2nd Edition
`
`Tim A. Osswald /Georg Menges
`
`HANSER
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`2nd Edition
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`Hanser Publishers, Munich
`Hanser Gardner Publications, Inc., Cincinnati
`
`Tim A. Osswald /
`
`Georg Menges
`
`Materials Science of
`Polymers for
`
`Engineers
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`

`—
`The Authors:
`Prof. Dr. Tim A. Osswald, Polymer Engineering Center, University of Wisconsin
`Madison,
`
`Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, 1513 University Avenue, Madison WI 53706, USA
`
`Prof. Dr—Ing. Georg Menges, Am Beulardstein 19, 52072 Aachen, Germany
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`Distributed in the USA and in Canada by
`{anser Gardner Publications, Inc.
`6915 Valley Avenue, Cincinnati, Ohio 45244-3029, USA
`Fax: (513) 527-8801
`Phone: (513) 527-8977 or 1-800-950-8977
`Internet: http://www.hansergardner.com
`Distributed in all other countries by
`Carl HanserVerlag
`Postfach 86 04 20, 81631 Miinchen, Germany
`Fax: +49 (89) 98 48 09
`Internet: http://www.hanser.de
`even if the former are not especially
`The use of general descriptive names, trademarks, etc., in this publication,
`identified, is not to be taken as a sign that such names,as understood by the ‘Trade Marks and Merchandise Marks
`Act, may accordingly be used freely by anyone.
`While the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of going to press,
`can accept anylegal responsibility for any errors or omissions
`neither the authors northe editors nor the publisher
`that may be made.The publisher makes no warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained
`herein.
`Data
`Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication
`Osswald TimA.
`Materials science of polymers for engineers / Tim A. Osswald, Georg
`Menges.— 2nd ed.
`p. cm.
`ISBN 1-56990-348-4 (hardcover)
`1. Polymers. 2. Plastics. I. Menges, Georg, 1923- II. Title.
`TA455.P58.068 2003
`620.1°92— -de21
`
`2003007497
`
`Bibliografische Information Der Deutschen Bibliothek
`Die Deutsche Bibliothck verzeichnet diese Publikation in der Deutschen Nationalbibliografie;
`abrufbar.
`detaillierte bibliografische Daten sind im Internet iiber <http://dnb,ddb.de>
`ISBN 3-446-22464-5
`
`For Diane, Palitos and Rudi
`Tim A. Osswald
`
`Dedicated to my wife
`
`in
`
`her
`gratitude for
`patience
`Georg Menges
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`All rights reserved, Nopart ofthis book may be reproducedortransmitted in any form or by any means, electronic
`or by anyinformation storage andretrieval system, without permission in
`or mechanical, including photocopying
`writing from the publisher.
`
`©Carl Hanser Verlag, Munich 2003
`Production Management: Oswald Immel
`
`Typeset by Angela Ospina-Garcia, USA+
`Susanne Kraus GbR, Holzkirchen, Germany
`Coverdesign: MCP
`Printed and bound by Késel, Kempten, Germany
`
`
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`
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`science, which saves work
`“Wihry does this
`applied
`us so 1ittle happiness?
`and nuakes life easier, bring
`answer ruins: Because we have not yet
`Thesimple
`,
`learned to make sensible use
`ofit.”
`
`Albert Emstein
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`Spring 2003
`
`Tim A. Osswald
`
`Madison, Wisconsin, USA
`
`
`Preface to the Second Edition
`
`
`Thefirst edition of this book was
`several universities in North and
`adopted by
`and Asia as a textbook to introduce
`South America, Europe,
`engineering
`students to the materials science of polymers. The book wasalso translated
`with thefirst edition as well
`into
`in 1998. The
`professors who
`Japanese
`taught
`as their students liked the unified
`we took. Furthermore,
`it has
`approach
`become a reference for many practicing engineers,
`most of whom were
`introduced to the book as students. The
`and additions that were
`changes
`introduced in this edition are based on
`from these professors
`and
`suggestions
`their students, as well as from our own
`as a class textbook.
`using
`experience
`it
`that we made to this edition is the
`One
`of
`major change
`at the end of each
`A
`and problems
`introduction.
`containing
`new chapter
`a few pages in the first edition. From a
`examples
`chapter.
`the history of polymers replaced
`course
`we found that
`at the
`of Wisconsin-Madison,
`polymers
`taught
`University
`from a historical perspective
`not
`madethe
`topic less
`introducing polymers
`only
`us a chance to show the role polymers have played, for
`dry, but it also gave
`better and for worse, while
`industrial world. The
`mixing
`shaping today’s
`in the first edition was
`with a
`comprehensive polymer
`chapter
`replaced
`processing chapter. The first edition was
`because of the vast number of
`praised
`and data that can be used as a reference. We havefurther
`strengthened
`graphs
`a table in the
`that contains material property
`this attribute
`by adding
`for several
`polymers.
`graphs
`With this edition we owe our
`to Dr. Christine Strohm, Dr.
`gratitude
`Glenz and Oswald Immel of Hanser Publishers for their cooperation
`Wolfgang
`during the production of this book. We are
`to Amelia
`Cosgrove for
`grateful
`the
`manuscript in such detail, finding typos and
`combing through
`making
`We thank Lina
`and Paul Wilichowski for preparing
`DSC
`suggestions.
`Lopez
`3. We also thank Aaron Hade, Soenarto
`data for
`Hadiprajitno, Juan
`Chapter
`Pablo Hernandez, Juan Rodrigo Sanz-Uribe and Jarrod Schemenauerfor their
`We are
`to
`Maria
`for the
`suggestions.
`grateful
`Angela
`Ospina
`superb job
`consume a
`the
`These
`preparing
`camera-ready manuscript.
`projects
`large
`number of hours, which results in several months of late nights; and so, we
`must thank our families for their
`patience.
`
`appendix
`
`Georg Menges
`Aachen, Germany
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`
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`

`Preface to the First Edition
`eS
`
`
`
`
`
`a
`to
`to
`polymer materials science
`This book is
`background
`provide
`designed
`It is written on an intermediate
`engineering students and practicing engineers.
`
`
`level for students, and as an introduction to
`materials science for
`polymer
`conjunction with a
`in
`information that,
`The book presents enough
`engineers.
`to
`it will enable the engineer
`design polymer
`good design background,
`
`components.
`is based on the German textbook,
`
`
`Materials Science
`of Polymers for Engineers
`Hanser Publishers, 1989), and on lecture
`Werkstoffkunde Kunststoffe (G. Menges,
`
`science courses
`at
`the Technical
`notes
`materials
`from polymer
`taught
`
`University of Aachen, Germany, and at the University of Wisconsin-Madison.
`
`are loose translations from
`on thermal and electrical properties
`The chapters
`were
`
`the manuscript
`and many figures throughout
`Werkstoffkunde Kunststoffe,
`
`taken from this book.
`
`
`We have chosen a unified approach
`and have divided the book into three
`on
`Properties, and
`sections: Basic Principles, Influence of Processing
`major
`
`is often referred to as the four
`Engineering Design Properties. This
`approach
`The first section covers
`
`P's: polymer, processing, product and performance.
`such as historical background,
`
`basic material properties,
`topics
`general
`
`The
`and thermal properties of polymers.
`molecular structure of polymers
`
`and design by discussing the effects of
`second section ties
`processing
`processing
`of the final polymer component. Here, we introduce the reader to
`
`on
`properties
`
`the rheology of polymer melts, mixing of polymer blends, development of
`
`anisotropy during processing and solidification processes. In essence, in this
`
`to the finished product(solidification).
`section we go from the melt (rheology)
`
`that need to be considered
`The third section covers the different properties
`a
`its
`These
`
`polymer component, and analyzing
`when designing
`performance.
`
`clectrical
`failure of polymers,
`include mechanical properties,
`properties
`
`of
`acoustic properties,
`and permeability
`properties, optical properties,
`
`polymers.
`
`or
`in one way
`The authors cannot
`acknowledge everyone who helped
`
`of this manuscript. We would like to thank the
`another in the
`preparation
`
`materials science courses who in the past few years
`students of our
`polymer
`out of new ideas. The authors are
`
`endured our
`and trying
`experimenting
`
`at
`to the staff and
`of the Mechanical Engineering Department
`grateful
`faculty
`Institut
`fiir
`and
`the
`the
`of
`Wisconsin-Madison,
`
`University
`of Aachen for their
`at the Technical University
`Kunststoffverarbeitung (IKV)
`
`the courses which gave the base for this book. We
`support while developing
`are
`We
`the entire manuscript.
`to Richard Theriault for
`grateful
`proofreading
`
`
`
`
`
`
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`

`x Preface
`or gave
`also thank the following people who helped proofread
`during, the preparation of the book: Susanne Belovari, Bruce A.
`suggestions
`Davis, Jeffrey
`Giacomin, Paul J. Gramann, Matthew Kaegebein, Gwan-Wan Lai, Maria del
`Pilar Noriega E., Antoine C. Rios B, Linards U. Stradins and Ester M.
`Sun.
`for
`are acknowledged
`translating
`Susanne Belovari and Andrea Jung-Mack
`portions of Werkstoffkunde Kunststoffe from German to English. Wealso
`thank
`the
`Tara Ruggiero for preparing the camera-ready manuscript. Many of
`figures
`senior
`were taken from class notes of
`the mechanical engineering
`course Engineering Design with Polymers. Special thanks are offered to
`elective
`Litzkow, Philipp Ehrenstein and Bryan Hutchinson for the superb job of
`Lynda
`drawing those figures. Matthias Mahlke of Bayer AG in Leverkusen,
`Germany,
`Laura Dietsche, Joseph Dooley and Kevin Hughes of Dow Chemical
`Midland, Michigan, and Mauricio DeGreif and Juan DiegoSierta of the ICIPC in
`in
`for some of the figures. Thanks are due
`Medellin, Colombia, are
`acknowledged
`to
`to Marcia Sanders for copy editing the final manuscript. Weare
`grateful
`Wolfgang Glenz, Martha Kiirzl, Ed Immergut and Carol Radtke of Hanser
`Publishers for their support throughout the development of this book. Above
`all, the authors thank their wives for their patience.
`
`
`
`Table of Contents
`
`Part
`
`I Basic Primciples
`
`........cccccccceesessseeseeeseecnetestecsescaneasensneaenesbenssesstannneneneens 1
`
`1
`
`Introduction to
`
`Polymers..,........:.ceccesccsnereetseseessteesccssesssueansnsasesssnseneensesennensens
`1.1. General Properties.....ccseseseerceceee
`
`Identification of
`1.2
`aeiinitis
`Polymers...
` —___sasenusernncereetereresees
`
`Problems
` _—__ieenensnantaparstnensensvncanspesesaucsiassiviuavsatseebbeasaccesisitaedenstebantiand 13
`References
`cee cee ceseeeteeeee teens rteneeeneeeesscneeneeenennenareeenens15
`2. Historical Background...
`Rubber...........:escescssssssesescreeteeessenes 15
`2.1 From Natural to
`
`Synthetic
`2.2 Cellulose and the $10,000 [dea.......ce:sssseccscsserseeceseseessseneeeaeeeeseees21
`-
`The Milk Stone...ccccccccceesesssesssennssssseenssesrenearceeensseseeeareeneress 24
`23 Galalith
`van
`2D
`24 Leo Baekeland and the Plastic INndustry.........:csseeeseeeee
`Education.............0.27
`2.5 Herman Mark and the American
`Polymer
`31
`2.6 Wallace Hume Carothers and
`-
`Synthetic Polymers..........-..-6
`A Product of Brain and Brawn...34
`2.7 Polyethylene
`
`2.8 The Super Fiber and the Woman whoInvented it...so 37
`-
`Plastics..cccccscssesenecteesensseeesseetenesssorenesteeneneeseeenenneas 38
`2.9 One last Word
` —>s__sasiieanesciaanenasounseasinznereacnenasenenerecmmemreenereeetoonenener 41
`References
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`Summer 1995
`
`Tim A. Osswald
`Madison, Wisconsin, USA
`
`Georg Menges
`Aachen, Germany
`
`3
`
`.......:..cccccccsssce tenesceeeeeneeey
`43
`Structure of Polymets
`43
`3.1 Macromolecular Structure of Polymers.........0..-+5
`
`3.2 Molecular Bonds and Inter-Molecular Attraction... 45
`..cccccccescscscsesctsesstsessecsieeesnssssiesssnssnesseessssectenenteneens 45
`3.3 Molecular Weight.
`Molecules..........51
`of Polymer
`3.4 Conformation and
`Configuration
`3.5 Arrangement of Polymer MoleculeS.........cccceeeneeen 100
`
`cece cereeseeeereeeseenen renee
`55
`3.5.1 Thermoplastic Polymers...
`56
`3.5.2 Amorphous Thermoplastics....escsesestesnerciensesnstitsiceens
`208
`3.5.3 Semi-Crystalline Thermoplastics....u..eeecs
`
`3.5.4 Thermosets and Cross-Linked Elastomers........::.::csesee 67
`cence 68
`and Polymer Blends...
`3.6 Copolymers
`sae?L
`3.7 Polymer Additves........secceeeeeeens
`
`we
`cece eeeeseeeeseseesenseseeseceees
`Zl
`
`3.7.1 Flame Retardant.........c
`
`wld
`3.7.2
` Stabilizers.,..csccsrorserserercensnsssdsssvondssiiidanietadeevavieiaeieccises
`ZA
`3.7.3 Antistatic Agents...
`
`..cicccccccccccceseesseeeecereseeeeeeseeeenees
`7A
`3.7.4 Fillers
`ee
`
`2d
`3.7.5 Blowing Agents...
`76
`
`3.8 Viscoelastic Behavior of Polymers.......
`3.8.1 Stress Relaxation TeSt........ccccsccssesessserereseecestesteeeesnesneneerrsseess 76
`3.8.2 Time-Temperature Superposition (WLF-Equationa).......78
`imaiews 80
`3.8.3 The Boltzmann Superposition Principle.............-
`
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`xii Table of Contents
`
`Table of Contents
`
`xiii
`
`BB
`
`5.5.4
`
`5.B.4 Couette FlOW,...ccecccesscrsceesscenseeccseceeseensessssnessarennsenecaeeeecestes 150
`5.4 Viscoelastic Flow Models..........--cecceserseeseceeeneecsensrestessnseseeeeeceeseetss 151
`5.4.1 Differential Viscoelastic Models........cccccecceseseseeeeeetens 151
`ee
`
`seseeeeesensene
`5.4.2
`154
`Viscoelastic Models...
`
`Integraloaeeesecsesesessestesesessneceenensanertensneaeeneecensneusssenuereeensensesenenn ty
`159
`
`RRCOMEtTY
`5.5.1 The Melt Flow Indexet......cccccccessessessereesesscseeseecsesasersteesenss 159
`
`veces
`Viscometern.....ccccsessesesesneesneanens
`5.5.2 The
`159
`Capillary
`—.............
`the
`and
`
`5.5.3.
`Bagley
`Computing Viscosity Using
`Weissenberg-Rabinowitsch Equations...
`....
`Viscosity Approximation Using the Representative
`cssaivicesnsersncssconsensvonscnaes ssceresteavennecensionienss
`163
`Method
`Viscosity
`5.5.5 The Cone-Plate Rheometet.........cecccesceccseeeeeereeereeeeeeeeeees 164
`5.5.6 The Couette Rheometer.........
`
`167
`5.5.7 Extensional
`RHCOMEHY........ccccccseeteeceeesteeceenseenseeeeeenenteees
`5.6 Surface Tensionr....ccccccccescssscscssscssssessessccessecsececsscsessesseseseeuesseteneees170
`
`162
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`
`
`to Describe the
`Linear Viscoelasticity
`3.8.4 Applying
`..css.cssseeessreseesesessetsennenseneneenecneneentes81
`behavior Of Polymers.
`wi
`8
`wa
`91
`94
`
`Examples
`Problems
`References
`
`
`
`4
`
`97
`of Polymers..........:s::scssseeeerseenerrenrerenseessecrtennainenenencets
`
`Thermal Properties
`ceeeenereseeseseenecneeenesrenneenteneencsereececs100
`
`Al Material Properties...
`eetereneeisneseeneneenenene
`
`100
`41.1 Thermal Conductivity...
`Heatt.,..eccecssecneernerereccieecssecseneeenecsnecneannneceaaneneess107
`
`41.2 Specific
`siceccccscssccccsecssceeesnesneeneenenneeseanensesnnaneenannersnennnnntensenresss 109
`ALS Density
`
`eteneetes
`cee eee een eeee
`112
`414A Thermal Diffusivity........e
`
`113
`41.5 Linear Coefficient of Thermal Expansion..........cccee
`4.1.6 Thermal Penctration....cccccsccssesceeeceeesrrneneeeessseneeeetenetereees115
`
`avaaneanenvnennarkerenpreneetness 115
`4.1.7 Glass Transition Tempcrature......
`sees teneessteenesenennees 116
`4.1.8 Melting Temperature...
`4.2 Measuring Thermal Data... csessesesssscetieesesseesnenransanenscens 116
`117
`4.2.1 Differential Thermal Analysis (DTA)....ssssscsseseseeesessee
`118
`422 Differential Scanning Calorimeter (DSC)...
`
`120
`
`4.2.3 Thermomechanical Analysis (TMA)....cs1:-::ssestesessneeenes
`cise
`121
`4.24 Thermogravimetry (TGA)...
`
`icsesreeeeenesnesineneanense122
`4.2.5 Density Measurement...
`———ssecossssnessetsansrnersnsesneennesnsrsnrecesceacsesiannsansssnaneestanesneceneeases 123
`
`Examples
`veneverveavarsanenssnqeseessssendeldabdasadisansansteadiecnsavestonusuuaaneaniessce 124
`
`Problems
`———_saesessesaesrentnnnerseeeesesessersestensusnencnsaneuauusnsnebeuerstesensentuananeey 128
`References
`ice scenes secanans teats
`129
`5 Rheology of Polymer Melts...........cscsccsessesesceeeeieennte
`
`oe. cece ccsceeeseeeceseseeneeseneeseeceneeeeeseneneneseeneneegnneenetirs 129
`BD Introductions
`.ccccccceceeeceeeeeseeeneeeeenesnenenens 129
`5.1.1 Continuum Mechanics...
`cee 131
`5.1.2 The Generalized Newtonian Fluid...
`cence:
`cesses
`
`133
`5.1.3 Normal Stresses in Shear FlOW.....:
`5.1.4 Deborah Numbet.....cscccccsecescnssccctesseserenensnenenreanennensnenenetees 134
`5.2 Viscous Flow Models.....cccsscseceesecscereeeesesseesrerssssescenennenenenanents 137
`sceressnrrenentes
`
`137
`5.2.1 The Power Law Model....cccccccsenieese
`
`5.2.2 The Bird-Carreau-Yasuda Model.....cseeessseceescsesencineees 139
`cece eee ieseeeesseneersnereaseaes 140
`
`5.2.3 The Bingham Fluide...
`veces
`
`LAO
`
`5.24 Elongational Viscosity...
`v142
`5.2.5 Rheology of Curing Thermosets....
`
`146
`5.2.6 Suspension Rheology.........:ce--eereeeeeeseeneeeereeeeeens
`
`Flow Models Commonin Polymer Processing..... 147
`5.3 Simplified
`cree csseeeesneeee ieee etrttc cece 148
`Shear FlOW.....
`5.3.1 Simple
`
`a Slit.c.ccccceesescsssesessenenssenrennens148
`5.3.2 Pressure Flow Through
`-
`a Tube
`5.3.3. Pressure Flow Through
`Hagen-Poiseuille
`FLOW cecccssesescsesececreneseeessenevesessseseeneneeecsneeeesiseceesessnasaesceseataceas 149
`
`Part
`
`6
`
`II
`
`
`
`
`Influence of Processing
`
`on
`
`Examples
`Problems
`References
`
`6.2
`
`6.2.3
`
`Properties........0......ccccceceeseeeeeenes183
`e
`LOD
`Introduction to
`seer
`san dg ceagicaaasi seslaimeavaneap
`ProcessinG......cecssrecssecsererrsseensseseensscsrecrensenerseneneensseeneessere
`6.1 Extrusion
`185
`88
`Extruder.........
`
`6.1.1 The
`Plasticating
`Zome......cccccsescseeeececeices191
`6.1.1.1 The Solids
`Conveying
`
`Zome...cccccsscseessssesserereseesesseesseses195
`6.1.1.2 The Melting
`0.0.0... cece tence ces
`
`197
`6.1.1.3 The
`Zone.
`Metering
`cece ceccneeeeeeesecesseseneeesespeneseenenenenets
`199
`6.1.2 Extrusion Dies...
`senescent
`199
`Dies...
`6.1.2.1
`
`ee eee eee eseeetesseemeaseeneeeneees
`Sheeting
`6.1.2.2 Tubular Dies...
`201
`Processes.cusssrrensnssauseniecenmrerenene momenenenernneteemnennerenteteecrenert
`202
`Mixing
`204
` 6.2.1 Distributive MIxinng........ecccccecccsecsseseerecnsseeneesessenensenenentens
`
`.....cccceccccceesercesesceeeeenensnenssesens
`6.2.1.1 Effect Of Orientation
`205
`ccc scene nsceecceseseeeseeneneeetes
`208
`6.2.2 Dispersive Mixing...
`208
`6.2.2.1 Break-Up of Particulate
`Agglomerates..............
`211
`6.2.2.2
`Break-Up of Fluid Droplets.....cccsscssenssecsaeessnernens
`wee
`
`214
`DeviceS...........08
`easgsx
`Mixing
`21D
`6.2.3.1 Static Mixers.........
`
`ccc ceescceescseseescseeeessseeesceenenets
`Mixer...
`216
`6.2.3.2
`
`Banbury
`Screw Extruders.....csseesesereens 218
`in
`6.2.3.3
`
`6.2.3.4 Cokneader... cece eeeeneecseneteseeeneeneneneseatsMixing Single
`
`220
`
`6.2.3.5 Twin Screw Extruders..c.ccccccceessseeeseseeseeserereenenenees221
`
`224
`6.2.4 Energy Consumption During Mixing...
`......ccccccieeccteeseceneees
`225
`6.2.5
`and
`Mixing Quality
`Efficiency.
`
`
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`xiv Table of Contents
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`6.3
`
`Plasticization......cccccsssessescsnesseessssesesnssseserecseseessensessesnenseneeee227
`6.2.6
`crescent
`veie233
`Injection MONding....
`siigieunimcncmamanZod
`SpiaaiannnNs.238
`6.3.1 The Injection Molding Cycle...
`
`6.3.2 The Injection Molding Machine...
`2:22 238
`6.3.2.1 The Plasticating and
`
`InjectionUnit.
`6.3.2.2 The Clamping Umit. ....esscesecrecscsessesesseesesenseneeneens 239
`
`sereseccsesversccnsseesesriennrencsnicensnsenstneey 241
`6.3.2.3 The Mold Cavity
`ee ee 243
`6.3.3 Related Injection Molding Processes...
`eeveeeee
`245
`6.4 Secondary Shaping...
`ese eceesteeseareneeneceneeny 245
`
`6.4.1 Fiber Spinminng......scecsceseeecccseseccsecece
`ceeee esses reese reese cseeneseentes
`246
`6.4.2 Filtry Production...
`sures
`
`246
`6.4.2.1 Cast Film Extrusion...
`see eeee eee eeesseseenneaeanennenennennenenns 247
`6.5.2.2 Film BlOWiNg...ccseeccece
`eee ieenseceaeeneteneatans 249
`GAS Blow MOlding.......cccccccee
`etree eee:
`249
`6.4.3.1 Extrusion Blow Molding...
`caveseseoseesebuiaseetsheincteeetaneansemenpeenentes253
`251
`6.4.3.3
`6.4.3.2 Injection Blow Molding........---.-ssseeeseteeneenres
`ssccecceccceecsiecesestisessnenssnseanvessnessssnsnanensinennnerensenercesesssssens 255
`sennnasenneenDO?
`ee
`—casescsssessteensrssbessncsnansstvsseesiuneesieasennssntone
`6.5 Calorering
`6.6 COATS
`
`260
`6.7 Compression MOIding......stssessesresnesrseenniceneesrsterorsnscenccanesnnnts
`eevee 262
`veces
`vececsaveeesvoesassceaececseeeesceceasersiusnasessanssesenenedestaeeavaes 264
`6.9 Rotational
`6.8 Foaming
`sanengnenzenneneadasavneluiagblsaliestat Giavesanediacsivawd
`esuanecteausntetoanad 266
`
`nee
`Examples
`saanecestanaeTsD
`arevtanepensanaesnnddishulusliilariararsinbaidianita
`275
`Problems
`
`—_seesesecenassrparevsencecucrevensesssseseesssssesssveneansonsananscentnsteeerantss 279
`ReferenceS
`ren ee ieee 283
`7 Anisotropy Development During ProcesSing.........cceccecei
`283
`7.1 Orientation in the Final Part......ccsessereeseese
`ie 283
`7.1.1 Processing Thermoplastic Polyme!S......c.cee
`292
`7.1.2 Processing Thermoset Polymers.........c.ccceeeeenesien
`sun
`297
`7.2 Predicting Orientation in the Final Part...
`
`72.1 Planar Orientation Distribution Function.......ccseere 298
`
`.....-.-:-ree ersten
`
`300
`7.2.2 Single Particle Motion,
`002
`Jeffery’s Model........00
`7.2.3
`
`erie
`..303
`Model...
`7.24 Folgar-Tucker
`
`of Fiber Orientation.........600-+ 304
`7.2.5 Tensor Representation
`
`Parts Using
`7.2.5.1 Predicting Orientation in Complex
`Computer Simulation...essserecrrecrerercseeetttneerntee 306
`veeld
`312
`sues
`7.3 Fiber Darmage.....secssessssserscesssssneenesseesssecseeseueeennersanensatennassneeesssntas
`Examples
`ses
`316
`Problems
`
`———_sasssessssesussssasisvsessensnovassassunausennesersengeneuegensarensenrersneneectets 318
`References
`
`Table of Contents
`
`xv
`
`349
`
`Solidification of Polymets..........::sccccsssessssesssesssesriecsereseersarenenesineetsstees 321
`ences 321
`8.1 Solidification of Thermoplastics...0..
`cee 321
`8.1.1 Thermodynamics During Cooling...
`8.1.2 Morphological Structure... eects reeensenenericenenese325
`
`cee eec sees eneeesaseesesserenesesesennys326
`B13 Crystallization...
`ccc
`8.1.4 Heat Transfer During Solidification...
`329
`
`8.2 Solidification of Thermosets...........cc:ccccccsssesnesseenssnvsiesresseeness 334
`8.2.1 Curing Reaction... cccssecssessseecseesssvecssnseerseersesssneesanves 334
`seve
`8.2.2 Cure Kinetics....ccccseececccenesies
`GOO
`eccentric 340
`8.2.3 Heat Transfer During Cure...
`
`8.3 Residual Stresses and Warpage of Polymeric Parts... 343
`
`ieee sce eeeeeensenteares
`8.3.1 Residual Stress Models...
`346
`8.3.1.1 Residual Stress Model Without Phase Change
`sjwiiiiinaaiiihntted aiciRennie
`Effects
`8.3.1.2 Model to Predict Residual Stresses with Phase..
`8.3.2 Other Simple Models to Predict Residual Stresses and
`Change Effects....c.cseccscsecccscsetsssessesesseeeeseessssesesssceee 350
`sees
`ice TAR
`re 354
`2053
`8.3.2.1 UnevenMoldTemperature.
`Warpage....
`8.3.2.2 Residual Stress in a Thin ThermosetPavrt............ 355
`8.3.3 Predicting Warpage in Actual Parts...........:cc 2GOS
`8.3.2.3 Anisotropy Induced Curvature Change............ Bo7
`cecsesesssesessessesessissecareneenerecaneenseteussonsasenssseseensseseneeneesenecess 362
`
`Examples
`—__ceeaesssesessscetecnssreensnacscanntnenensusnevenensnegenasessessanstecansaucenesenes 364
`Problems
`——aesessssseansustneassensenssneennnsuenssensnsseneneassenssessennecscarseanenseneones
`366
`References
`III Engineering Design Properties..........ccsscsesessceseseeeceeeeseesseeseteetseenenees369
`ccc cseescceseseseseeeseseeesenees 371
`Mechanical Behavior of Polymetrs..........0..0.0.0.
`reece
`9.1 Basic Concepts of Stress and Strain...
`371
`9.1.1 Plane Stress.ssvscsanssenaseauspranveuetvnnansesanscrenncainasevannimmsnerineneies+372
`
`veeeee
`373
`91.2 Plane Strain...cccecceeeceee
`
`9.2 The Short-Term Tensile Test......ccccccccceseccssssstscesssssennseesesenesasenseesens 373
`ssssssanussnsannsssnssenatsiansensavensisavenensarsisancetinets 373
`9.2.1 Rubber Elasticity
`9.2.2. The Tensile Test and Thermoplastic Polymers.............. 379
`neceee eeeeee nes resneeeenesieeneeteeeneesceneeseees388
`9.3 Long-Term Test...
`Isochronous and Isometric Creep Plots........cccccserereees 391
`9.3.1
`9.4 Dynamic Mechanical Tests.....ccccccesecesseneeeseenseeneresceeeesreneate 393
`YA1 Torsion Pendulum .e.icccceecccccctccteteeceseneestetevesscaenentieeeutacventes 393
`_ SiinHIREED.397
`9.4.2 Sinusoidal
`OscillatoryTest...
`
`weve
`99S
`9.5 Viscoelastic Behavior of
`sii
`z
`wee
`Polymers...
`Seley rnTON nTrOP
`STEOSTS 400
`9.5.1 Kelvin Model...
`9D
`
`9.5.1.1 Kelvin ModelCreep‘Response.
`
`9.5.1.2 Kelvin Model Stress Relaxation... 400
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`9.5.1.3 Kelvin Model Strain Recovery......c-:-seeereeeeres 401
`9.5.1.4 Kelvin Model Dynamic Respomnse.....---:-.--1401
`vee 401
`
`Jeffrey Moclel........ccssecccceecrsteessesesseeseeeneneensenees
`9.5.2.1 Jeffrey Model Creep Response.......-seerrecre 402
`
`9.5.2.2 Jeffrey Model Stress Relaxation...403
`creer403
`
`
`9.5.2.3 Jeffrey Model Strain Recovery...
`
`95.3 Standard Linear Solid Model...........2.1:cssesceeneensenenneereees 403
`9.5.3.1 Standard Linear Solid Model Creep Response... 404
`9.5.3.2 Standard Linear Solid Model Stress Relaxation..405
`9.5.4 Maxwell-Wiechert Model.......cssoc:sssssiissssessunesssssnnneecees405
`9.5.4.1 Maxwell-Wiechert Model Stress Relaxation....... 406
`9.5.4.2 Maxwell-Wiechert Model Dynamic Response....407
`on Mechanical
`cecsteveeee OF
`9.6 Effects of Structure and Composition
`—....csesssneeessseecsssteeceneesrarersentenenerrersaescecanets
`errccretetteneeniees409
`PrOperties
`9.6.1 Amorphous Thermoplastics....s..sersecseess
`ies
`410
`cesses vives 412.
`
`9.6.2 Semi-Crystalline Thermoplastics..........0esseseecer
`9.6.3 Oriented Thermoplastics........-cierer
`418
`
`9.64 Cross-Linked POLYTTETS.ssecssccecsseececsessenceeeeeeeeseenessenensecesssss
`9.7 Mechanical Behaviorof Filled and Reinforced Polymers.......... 420
`9.7.1 Anisotropic Strain-Stress Relation.......sccceeersceeseeeererrecesAD?
`9.7.2 Aligned Fiber Reinforced Composite Laminates.......... 423
`973 Transformation of Fiber Reinforced Composite
`---.-:.csssesssessesseneeennennnecnentneerensenecs 426
`Laminate Properties...
`9.7.4 Reinforced Composite Laminates with a Fiber
`cee eenilt429
`Orientation Distribution FUnction........eererece
`429
`9,8 Strength Stability Under Heat............-1ss0-
`seesssssssnssssssssssssssnsssssnnnnennssnnecceesateseccsessunannunnnnnnnncnnegarae431
`
`Examples
`eveseacssenssssucsevscsesecseessectescennaneneensaseatesnnensneassrsunenenserenenses440
`Probleris
`—sasesesennssnsusnersessbbesctesesisniosasecneunanassnsenscrscensreseecessennnnens?444
`
`References
`447
`40 Failure and Damage of Polymers........-..ccsssssssesseeeersssesseeesercenetteneecannnanes
`10.1 Fracture Mechatiics...........cccccceesessensessicaneseeseneesanessseeeanecenerennes 447
`10.1.1 Fracture Predictions Based on the Stress Intensity
`FACHOL cocscceccecceceeceececsescseessereneeusessesessrsesnsessssenenseesestesseeasnenerenes 448
`10.1.2 Fracture Predictions Based on an
`Energy Balance..........450
`40.1.3 Linear Viscoelastic Fracture Predictions Based on
`J-Urtegrals......secesscsceesseercennsessssssssennnnececonnssceenniceessnssequenaesssety 453
`455
`10.2 Short-Term, Tensile Stremgth.........cscsesessceccseesteseeneenetestensentenenss
`
`10.2.1 Brittle Failure..........cccccceecessscssceseneeesseneeeeestesssetenesnensssesenen456
`
`10.2.2 Ductile Pailure...c.ce.cccecsescccccecccccessesessesveesesnenesneensensnnsiernensaees459
`or Composites.......... 464
`
`10.2.3 Failure of Highly Filled Systems
`
`467
`10.3 Tmpact Strength....cssssecessssecsssreerceceserssnnnenensnnenerresssscecunnesenseniaeseetts
`
`10.3.1 Impact Test Methods..........-.
`veaananbinttusisnasestytos.wirvecersseanieHeEO
`
`10.3.2 Fracture Mechanics Analysis of ImpactFailure...........478
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`9.5.2
`
`
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`TOF
`cece eeeesee teesesiesseereeneeicsseeatsseenseeseenenty 483
`10.4 Creep Rupture...
`10.4.1 Creep Rupture Tests........ssccssreersrensireereesnnennseets 484
`10.4.2 Fracture Mechanics Analysis of Creep Rupture............. 487
`
`csesssssesstsessncenneesnersennseenessanssrenecasuennsanevennuacqnecnuensaenasensets488
`10.5 Fatigue
`10.5.1 Fatigue Test Methods.......2.-.:c:csssseseessecsnessenssessenecens 488
`10.5.2 Fracture Mechanics Analysis of Fatigue Failure............498
`10.6 Friction and Weat......ccccccsesereseeesessessesesessseanenarsesenssensnenenereenents 499
`
`weDOB
`10.7 Stability of Polymer Structures............scee
`10.8 Environmental Effects on
`Polymer Failure...........0eeeeee505
`sisccissssssniisssinmscsssseciesneereene
`
`1-505
`10.8.1 Weathering
`.........ceeeens
`
`wesDL1
`10.8.2 Chemical Degradation.
`513
`10.8.3 Thermal Degradation of PolymetS.........ee
`cescessessssecceesssessusseereessneenssssunenvesanenssssaeenserssennnesnarenecsenss 515
`
`————_seccsesecesevevevececseasseseescseseacscseseaeseesenseeevesseesenenaesssssceesenene517
`Examples
`
`Problems
`dasaseme 518
`References
`
`nesses 2M
`11 Electrical Properties of Polymer.........0-::0::-scc:sssessseesss
`11.1 Dielectric Behavior...
`
`11.1.1 Dielectric Coefficient........:cccccceceseeeessreereesesteesecterensrerentes521
`11.1.2 Mechanismsof Dielectrical Polarization... 524
`11.1.3 Dielectric Dissipation Factor...eset ieeee528
`11.1.4 Implications of Electrical and Thermal Loss in a
`Dielectric.....ececcccccccccescecceseseeceeeeeneseecarscsasssesseenessnaneensenenensens532
`EAS532
`se
`11.2 Electric Conductivity...........
`
`11.2.1 Electric ReSiStanCe.....ceeeesessssseeeeeeeceerceesesstaseereeennetesenanies 532
`11.2.2 Physical Causes of Volume Conductivity..ecrserseerrscrse 534
`11.3 Application Problems...ectteseetsaneesneesnenenennsnaes 537
`
`
`11.3.1 Electric Breakdown.....cccccccssssccecessecsseneeeeeetereesseesseecsseeeenea® 537
`ssmeaseeserensnees540
`.c.sccsccssseseseceseeeereneerener
`
`11.3.2 Electrostatic Charge.
`
`occ cee ccceeecceresessesesaeessensesseeesnessesaseesnsenseenens542
`11.3.3 Electrets
`11.3.4 Electromagnetic Interference Shielding
`Peeeeeereeeee eeeee542
`(EMIShielding)...
`......-ccccccecsessissesssecsessstssnesnensnensenneennsennersirens543
`11.4 Magnetic Properties.
`seecieeseeneereeneenneanenneens 543
`cece
`
`11.4.1 Magnetizability
`ice eensetseeneiesnesceacects 543
`
`11.4.2 Magnetic Resonannce....cssscececcer
`——_-ssaisisecusisutussavdeisarsessensenvsinsnvcanatavvavetiassacenensnneantarnesnenseeney 544
`References
`ses sssesiceesssseonsenecreenenette 545
`12 Optical Properties of Polytimers.......::+--.--:ccecsesesees
`12.1 Index of Refraction....ccccccccsceseeerseesscsescnessceessecseseserssensecisceeeeessestes545
`ccceseeseees ieee eeseereens 548
`12.2 Photoelasticity and Birefringence...
`12.3 Transparency, Reflection, Absorption, and Transmittance...... 553
`——sacsesssensesenesnseceeceeenenenssneanscscesnesesenensecseestessneneneeeretersceees 559
`TDA GIOSS
`eee 560
`SSLESE
`12.5 Color
`OD
`12.6 Infrared Spectroscopy...csessscecsssseesseseeesstteeeeecetieetessnaassnsnnansnnsersss
`
`
`
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`xviii Table af Contents ee
`565
`12.7 Infrared PyrOMmetry.....ccsesssesceeeeiseeeeeecenenenntatsnnesseneensrscenticcesenenens
`nennenetieeneenes567
`sss
`12.8 Heating with Infrared Radiation...........
`sescurerenpurengorsenepnngenenenntgoersitcsrestin nas ianimeasenaemaera maa
`
`OOF
`References
`
`Part I
`
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`resets eeennesnneenneees
`571
`of Polymers.......-.--:ccsecscsrecreseess
`13 Permeability Properties
`cesses
`so71
`13.1 Sorption
`
`13.4 Corrosion of Polymers and Cracking......sessereescrnsrrerreerereenensees580
`13.2 Diffusion and Permeation...erccrrerccceeseenesrssnsenreesrirsesnsstecssereessees 573
`
`siege79
`13.3 Measuring S, D and Priscesescseseenrenneesseees
`
`13.5 Diffusion of Polymer Molecules and Self-Diffusion.......e.02083
`———_aasasecassssssenesssssessvsnnesnveneaenasenenenerannnensesrersnuserenesesgrenenernens 58