(cid:926)(cid:3)(cid:926) (cid:1005)(cid:1013)(cid:1005)(cid:1013)(cid:1013)(cid:1010)(cid:1013)(cid:1010)(cid:3)(cid:18)(cid:258)(cid:258)(cid:396)(cid:367)(cid:367)(cid:3)(cid:44)(cid:258)(cid:374)(cid:400)(cid:286)(cid:396) (cid:115)(cid:115)(cid:286)(cid:396)(cid:367)(cid:258)(cid:258)(cid:336)(cid:856)(cid:3)(cid:4)(cid:367)(cid:367)(cid:4) (cid:367)(cid:367) (cid:396)(cid:349)(cid:336)(cid:346)(cid:336)(cid:346)(cid:410)(cid:400)(cid:3)(cid:396)(cid:286)(cid:400)(cid:286)(cid:400)(cid:286)(cid:396)(cid:448)(cid:448)(cid:286)(cid:282)(cid:286) (cid:856)(cid:856)
`(cid:69)(cid:381)(cid:69)(cid:381) (cid:437)(cid:437)(cid:374)(cid:258)(cid:437)(cid:410)(cid:346)(cid:381)(cid:396)(cid:349)(cid:460)(cid:286)(cid:460) (cid:282)(cid:3)(cid:282)(cid:349)(cid:349)(cid:400)(cid:272)(cid:367)(cid:381)(cid:400)(cid:437)(cid:396)(cid:286)(cid:3)(cid:381)(cid:396)(cid:3)(cid:396)(cid:286)(cid:393)(cid:396)(cid:381)(cid:282)(cid:437)(cid:437)(cid:272)(cid:410)(cid:410)(cid:349)(cid:381)(cid:374)(cid:854)(cid:854)(cid:3)(cid:367)(cid:349)(cid:367)(cid:349)(cid:272)(cid:286)(cid:286)(cid:374)(cid:400)(cid:374)(cid:400)(cid:286)(cid:282)(cid:286)(cid:282)(cid:286) (cid:3)(cid:410)(cid:381)(cid:410) (cid:3)(cid:393)(cid:437)(cid:393)(cid:437)(cid:396)(cid:272)(cid:272)(cid:346)(cid:258)(cid:400)(cid:286)(cid:396)(cid:3)(cid:381)(cid:374)(cid:381) (cid:367)(cid:455)(cid:455)(cid:856)
`
`0001
`
`EX1008 (Part 1 of 3)
`Yita v. MacNeil
`IPR2020-01139
`
`

`

`Throne
`
`Technology of Thermofonning
`
`(cid:926)(cid:3)(cid:1005)(cid:1013)(cid:1013)(cid:1010)(cid:3)(cid:18)(cid:258)(cid:396)(cid:367)(cid:3)(cid:44)(cid:258)(cid:374)(cid:400)(cid:286)(cid:396)(cid:3)(cid:115)(cid:286)(cid:396)(cid:367)(cid:258)(cid:336)(cid:856)(cid:3)(cid:4)(cid:367)(cid:367)(cid:3)(cid:396)(cid:349)(cid:336)(cid:346)(cid:410)(cid:400)(cid:3)(cid:396)(cid:286)(cid:400)(cid:286)(cid:396)(cid:448)(cid:286)(cid:282)(cid:856)(cid:3)
`© 1996 Carl Hanser Verlag. All rights reserved.
`(cid:69)(cid:381)(cid:3)(cid:437)(cid:374)(cid:258)(cid:437)(cid:410)(cid:346)(cid:381)(cid:396)(cid:349)(cid:460)(cid:286)(cid:282)(cid:3)(cid:282)(cid:349)(cid:400)(cid:272)(cid:367)(cid:381)(cid:400)(cid:437)(cid:396)(cid:286)(cid:3)(cid:381)(cid:396)(cid:3)(cid:396)(cid:286)(cid:393)(cid:396)(cid:381)(cid:282)(cid:437)(cid:272)(cid:410)(cid:349)(cid:381)(cid:374)(cid:854)(cid:3)(cid:367)(cid:349)(cid:272)(cid:286)(cid:374)(cid:400)(cid:286)(cid:282)(cid:3)(cid:410)(cid:381)(cid:3)(cid:393)(cid:437)(cid:396)(cid:272)(cid:346)(cid:258)(cid:400)(cid:286)(cid:396)(cid:3)(cid:381)(cid:374)(cid:367)(cid:455)(cid:856)
`No unauthorized disclosure or reproduction; licensed to purchaser only.
`
`0002
`
`0002
`
`

`

`(cid:926)(cid:3)(cid:1005)(cid:1013)(cid:1013)(cid:1010)(cid:3)(cid:18)(cid:258)(cid:396)(cid:367)(cid:3)(cid:44)(cid:258)(cid:374)(cid:400)(cid:286)(cid:396)(cid:3)(cid:115)(cid:286)(cid:396)(cid:367)(cid:258)(cid:336)(cid:856)(cid:3)(cid:4)(cid:367)(cid:367)(cid:3)(cid:396)(cid:349)(cid:336)(cid:346)(cid:410)(cid:400)(cid:3)(cid:396)(cid:286)(cid:400)(cid:286)(cid:396)(cid:448)(cid:286)(cid:282)(cid:856)(cid:3)
`© 1996 Carl Hanser Verlag. All rights reserved.
`(cid:69)(cid:381)(cid:3)(cid:437)(cid:374)(cid:258)(cid:437)(cid:410)(cid:346)(cid:381)(cid:396)(cid:349)(cid:460)(cid:286)(cid:282)(cid:3)(cid:282)(cid:349)(cid:400)(cid:272)(cid:367)(cid:381)(cid:400)(cid:437)(cid:396)(cid:286)(cid:3)(cid:381)(cid:396)(cid:3)(cid:396)(cid:286)(cid:393)(cid:396)(cid:381)(cid:282)(cid:437)(cid:272)(cid:410)(cid:349)(cid:381)(cid:374)(cid:854)(cid:3)(cid:367)(cid:349)(cid:272)(cid:286)(cid:374)(cid:400)(cid:286)(cid:282)(cid:3)(cid:410)(cid:381)(cid:3)(cid:393)(cid:437)(cid:396)(cid:272)(cid:346)(cid:258)(cid:400)(cid:286)(cid:396)(cid:3)(cid:381)(cid:374)(cid:367)(cid:455)(cid:856)
`No unauthorized disclosure or reproduction; licensed to purchaser only.
`
`0003
`
`0003
`
`

`

`James L. Throne
`
`Technology of
`Thermoforming
`
`Hanser Publishers, Munich Vienna New York
`
`Hanger/Gardner Publications, Inc., Cincinnati
`
`(cid:926)(cid:3)(cid:1005)(cid:1013)(cid:1013)(cid:1010)(cid:3)(cid:18)(cid:258)(cid:396)(cid:367)(cid:3)(cid:44)(cid:258)(cid:374)(cid:400)(cid:286)(cid:396)(cid:3)(cid:115)(cid:286)(cid:396)(cid:367)(cid:258)(cid:336)(cid:856)(cid:3)(cid:4)(cid:367)(cid:367)(cid:3)(cid:396)(cid:349)(cid:336)(cid:346)(cid:410)(cid:400)(cid:3)(cid:396)(cid:286)(cid:400)(cid:286)(cid:396)(cid:448)(cid:286)(cid:282)(cid:856)(cid:3)
`© 1996 Carl Hanser Verlag. All rights reserved.
`(cid:69)(cid:381)(cid:3)(cid:437)(cid:374)(cid:258)(cid:437)(cid:410)(cid:346)(cid:381)(cid:396)(cid:349)(cid:460)(cid:286)(cid:282)(cid:3)(cid:282)(cid:349)(cid:400)(cid:272)(cid:367)(cid:381)(cid:400)(cid:437)(cid:396)(cid:286)(cid:3)(cid:381)(cid:396)(cid:3)(cid:396)(cid:286)(cid:393)(cid:396)(cid:381)(cid:282)(cid:437)(cid:272)(cid:410)(cid:349)(cid:381)(cid:374)(cid:854)(cid:3)(cid:367)(cid:349)(cid:272)(cid:286)(cid:374)(cid:400)(cid:286)(cid:282)(cid:3)(cid:410)(cid:381)(cid:3)(cid:393)(cid:437)(cid:396)(cid:272)(cid:346)(cid:258)(cid:400)(cid:286)(cid:396)(cid:3)(cid:381)(cid:374)(cid:367)(cid:455)(cid:856)
`No unauthorized disclosure or reproduction; licensed to purchaser only.
`
`0004
`
`0004
`
`

`

`The Author:
`
`Dr. James L. Throne. Sherwood Technologies. inc. [SS Brookside Blvd. Hinckley. OH 44233—9676. USA
`
`Distributed in the USA and in Canada by
`HanserlGardner Publications. Inc.
`6600 Clough Pike. Cincinnati. Ohio 452444090. USA
`Fax: (513) 527-8950
`Phone: (513] 527-8977 or [800-950-8977
`
`Distributed in all other countries by
`Carl Hanser Verlag
`Postfach 86 04 20. 81631 Munchen, Germany
`Fax: +49 {39) 93 12 54
`
`trademarks, etc" in this publication. even if the former are not
`The use of general descriptive names.
`especially identified. is not to be taken as a sign that such names. as understood by the Trade Marks and
`Merchandise Marks Act. may accordingly be used Freely by anyone.
`
`While the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of going
`to press. neither the authors nor the editors nor the publisher can accept any legal responsibility for any
`errors or omissions that may be made. The publisher makes no warranty. express or implied. with respect
`to the material contained herein.
`
`Library of Congress Cataloging~io~Publication Data
`
`Throne. James L.. l93T-
`Technology of thermoforrning E James L. Throne.
`p.
`cm.
`Includes bibliographical references and index.
`[SEN [-56990-198—3
`
`1. Plastics-Molding.
`TPl lSO.T4El
`[996
`668.4' lZ—dc'ZO
`
`1. Title.
`
`96-24175
`
`Die Deutsche Bibiiothek—ClP-Einheitsaufnahme
`Throne, James L:
`Technology of thermoforming Jr James L. Throne—Munich :
`Vienna ; New York : Hanser : Cincinnati : Hanser l Gardner.
`1996
`ISBN 3—446-17312—0
`
`All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means.
`electronic or mechanical. including photocopying or by any information storage and retrieval system.
`without permission in writing from the publisher.
`
`© Car] Hanser Verlag. Munich Vienna New York. I996
`Typeset in Ireland by Datapage international Ltd. Dublin
`Printed and bound in Germany by Kosel. Kempten
`
`(cid:926)(cid:3)(cid:1005)(cid:1013)(cid:1013)(cid:1010)(cid:3)(cid:18)(cid:258)(cid:396)(cid:367)(cid:3)(cid:44)(cid:258)(cid:374)(cid:400)(cid:286)(cid:396)(cid:3)(cid:115)(cid:286)(cid:396)(cid:367)(cid:258)(cid:336)(cid:856)(cid:3)(cid:4)(cid:367)(cid:367)(cid:3)(cid:396)(cid:349)(cid:336)(cid:346)(cid:410)(cid:400)(cid:3)(cid:396)(cid:286)(cid:400)(cid:286)(cid:396)(cid:448)(cid:286)(cid:282)(cid:856)(cid:3)
`© 1996 Carl Hanser Verlag. All rights reserved.
`(cid:69)(cid:381)(cid:3)(cid:437)(cid:374)(cid:258)(cid:437)(cid:410)(cid:346)(cid:381)(cid:396)(cid:349)(cid:460)(cid:286)(cid:282)(cid:3)(cid:282)(cid:349)(cid:400)(cid:272)(cid:367)(cid:381)(cid:400)(cid:437)(cid:396)(cid:286)(cid:3)(cid:381)(cid:396)(cid:3)(cid:396)(cid:286)(cid:393)(cid:396)(cid:381)(cid:282)(cid:437)(cid:272)(cid:410)(cid:349)(cid:381)(cid:374)(cid:854)(cid:3)(cid:367)(cid:349)(cid:272)(cid:286)(cid:374)(cid:400)(cid:286)(cid:282)(cid:3)(cid:410)(cid:381)(cid:3)(cid:393)(cid:437)(cid:396)(cid:272)(cid:346)(cid:258)(cid:400)(cid:286)(cid:396)(cid:3)(cid:381)(cid:374)(cid:367)(cid:455)(cid:856)
`No unauthorized disclosure or reproduction; licensed to purchaser only.
`
`0005
`
`0005
`
`

`

`Preface
`
`in 1985 and Carl Hanser Verlag
`I completed the monograph. Thermofiirmarg,
`published it in 198?. At the time it was written, there were no up-to-date mono-
`graphs devoted solely to thermoforming. Two monographs devoted to thermoform-
`ing appeared about the same time as the Thermoformr‘ng monograph. They are:
`.l. Florian. Practical Thermoformr‘ng: Principles and Applications. Marcel Dekker,
`lnc., New York {1987).
`G. Gruenwald. Thermoforming: A Plastics Processing Guide. Technomic Publish~
`ing Co., Inc., Lancaster PA (198?).
`Reviewers of the three monographs remarked at the time that while there was
`some overlap, the three monographs provided separate and unique insights to the
`industry and that technologists Would do well to have access to all three.
`1n the preface to that monograph,
`I stated that:
`
`“Thermol'orming is not an easy process. it just looks easy.”
`
`In many respects, the industry has verified this over and over in the last decade.
`further stated that:
`
`I
`
`". .. [Thermoforrning] is becoming challenging as newer process variations,
`newer materials, tighter sheet and part tolerances, more critical applications
`and more sophisticated controls are developed."
`
`In the last decade, the industry has successfully tackled many of these very difficult
`problems. The core business has been helped greatly by improved heaters, more
`accurate process controls, cooperative interaction between extruders and formers,
`more easily thermoformahle polymers, advanced trimming techniques, and to a great
`degree,
`the acceptance of thermoforming as a process by GEMS.
`In addition,
`thermol'orming has gained the attention of many universities,
`technical writers,
`consultants and software companies. And the industry has grown dramatically in
`size. As an example, the Society of Plastics Engineers Therrnoforming Division held
`a fall conference in Wisconsin in 1991. About 100 people attended. In Midland MI
`in I992 more than 200 attended. In South Bend IN in 1993, more than 400 attended,
`in Atlanta in I994. more than 600 attended, and in Cleveland in 1995, nearly 3’00
`attended. And plans are being made for nearly 800 in Cincinnati in 1996. There are
`more than 200 custom thermol‘ormers in the US today and some estimate that a new
`thermoforming company is born every week.
`The industry seems to have come of age in the last ten years. This work was
`intended to be a revision and update of the 1987 monograph. Readers of that
`monograph will note that this book is much larger. This book is also an overview of
`the technical aspects of thermoforming and generally follows the outline of the
`Thermoforming monograph. However,
`I have included worked-out examples and
`many guidelines to illustrate and support the technical aspects. As with the 198?
`monograph, the material in each chapter of this book moves from relatively simple
`concepts to more technical, in-depth considerations. This book has ten chapters:
`
`(cid:926)(cid:3)(cid:1005)(cid:1013)(cid:1013)(cid:1010)(cid:3)(cid:18)(cid:258)(cid:396)(cid:367)(cid:3)(cid:44)(cid:258)(cid:374)(cid:400)(cid:286)(cid:396)(cid:3)(cid:115)(cid:286)(cid:396)(cid:367)(cid:258)(cid:336)(cid:856)(cid:3)(cid:4)(cid:367)(cid:367)(cid:3)(cid:396)(cid:349)(cid:336)(cid:346)(cid:410)(cid:400)(cid:3)(cid:396)(cid:286)(cid:400)(cid:286)(cid:396)(cid:448)(cid:286)(cid:282)(cid:856)(cid:3)
`© 1996 Carl Hanser Verlag. All rights reserved.
`(cid:69)(cid:381)(cid:3)(cid:437)(cid:374)(cid:258)(cid:437)(cid:410)(cid:346)(cid:381)(cid:396)(cid:349)(cid:460)(cid:286)(cid:282)(cid:3)(cid:282)(cid:349)(cid:400)(cid:272)(cid:367)(cid:381)(cid:400)(cid:437)(cid:396)(cid:286)(cid:3)(cid:381)(cid:396)(cid:3)(cid:396)(cid:286)(cid:393)(cid:396)(cid:381)(cid:282)(cid:437)(cid:272)(cid:410)(cid:349)(cid:381)(cid:374)(cid:854)(cid:3)(cid:367)(cid:349)(cid:272)(cid:286)(cid:374)(cid:400)(cid:286)(cid:282)(cid:3)(cid:410)(cid:381)(cid:3)(cid:393)(cid:437)(cid:396)(cid:272)(cid:346)(cid:258)(cid:400)(cid:286)(cid:396)(cid:3)(cid:381)(cid:374)(cid:367)(cid:455)(cid:856)
`No unauthorized disclosure or reproduction; licensed to purchaser only.
`
`0006
`
`0006
`
`

`

`v:
`
`Preface
`
`Chapter 1, “Thermoforming-—Definitions. History, Methods and Equipment”. is
`a proper introduction to the subject. The chapter includes some history. some market
`information. a glossary of definitions. the traditional methods of forming and some
`technical considerations about the machinery.
`Chapter 2. “Polymeric Materials“, briefly reviews the nature of thermoformablc
`polymers and their adducts. General concepts of polymer response to applied loads
`and temperatures are considered. Some important new information on infrared
`energy absorption is detailed.
`reviews the three general ways of heating
`Chapter 3. “Heating the Sheet",
`sheet—conduction, convection and radiation. Since infrared radiation is the most
`popular and efficient means of heating sheet, fundamental aspects are discussed. This
`chapter becomes quite technical with general guidelines for determining heating
`cycles and a new section on computer-generated prediction of sheet temperature.
`Chapter 4, “Stretching the Sheet". is concerned with fundamentals of multiaxial
`sheet deformation. Polymer hot strength is related to tensile characteristics of
`rubbery solids and viscosity of elastic liquids. Sheet sag is shown to be strongly
`related to polymer hot strength. Again, the material is quite technical.
`Chapter 5. “Cooling and Trimming the Sheet", deals with heat removal from the
`sheet while against the mold surface. Some new material on computer-generated
`mold temperature prediction is given. The mechanics of cutting the molded part from
`the web are considered in detail.
`
`Chapter 6, “Thermoforrning Molds", considers mold materials and mold designs.
`Vacuum or vent hole sizes and numbers are arithmetically determined and plug
`materials and designs are also discussed.
`Chapter 3', “Parts Design". first considers the economics of parts design. Draw
`ratios are then defined and wall thickness prediction methods discuSSed. Regrind and
`material property loss are considered in detail. and an extensive section on part
`design guidelines followa.
`is a new chapter. Since the thermo-
`Chapter 8, “Producing Sheet and Film“.
`forrner is the customer of the extruder, hefshe should know some rudimentary
`extrusion concepts. This chapter is a brief summary of the extntsion process. with
`emphasis on sheet quality and quality control. A sheet quality checklist is discussed
`in detail.
`
`Chapter 9, “Newer Thermoforming Technologies”. is also a new chapter, written
`in response to many requests for forming information in several new processing
`areas. In the [987 monograph. I said:
`
`“. . . [Elngineers seeking the latest information on pressure forming, the heat-
`ing of foam sheet or forming crystalliziug PET will be disappoint
`.”
`
`This is no longer the case. Chapter 9 presents vignettes on the following forming
`techniques:
`
`a CPET,
`I Pressure forming,
`o Forming filled and reinforced polymers,
`| Laminated sheet forming,
`
`(cid:926)(cid:3)(cid:1005)(cid:1013)(cid:1013)(cid:1010)(cid:3)(cid:18)(cid:258)(cid:396)(cid:367)(cid:3)(cid:44)(cid:258)(cid:374)(cid:400)(cid:286)(cid:396)(cid:3)(cid:115)(cid:286)(cid:396)(cid:367)(cid:258)(cid:336)(cid:856)(cid:3)(cid:4)(cid:367)(cid:367)(cid:3)(cid:396)(cid:349)(cid:336)(cid:346)(cid:410)(cid:400)(cid:3)(cid:396)(cid:286)(cid:400)(cid:286)(cid:396)(cid:448)(cid:286)(cid:282)(cid:856)(cid:3)
`© 1996 Carl Hanser Verlag. All rights reserved.
`(cid:69)(cid:381)(cid:3)(cid:437)(cid:374)(cid:258)(cid:437)(cid:410)(cid:346)(cid:381)(cid:396)(cid:349)(cid:460)(cid:286)(cid:282)(cid:3)(cid:282)(cid:349)(cid:400)(cid:272)(cid:367)(cid:381)(cid:400)(cid:437)(cid:396)(cid:286)(cid:3)(cid:381)(cid:396)(cid:3)(cid:396)(cid:286)(cid:393)(cid:396)(cid:381)(cid:282)(cid:437)(cid:272)(cid:410)(cid:349)(cid:381)(cid:374)(cid:854)(cid:3)(cid:367)(cid:349)(cid:272)(cid:286)(cid:374)(cid:400)(cid:286)(cid:282)(cid:3)(cid:410)(cid:381)(cid:3)(cid:393)(cid:437)(cid:396)(cid:272)(cid:346)(cid:258)(cid:400)(cid:286)(cid:396)(cid:3)(cid:381)(cid:374)(cid:367)(cid:455)(cid:856)
`No unauthorized disclosure or reproduction; licensed to purchaser only.
`
`0007
`
`0007
`
`

`

`Preface
`
`vii
`
`o Twin-sheet forming,
`a Forming PP.
`o Thermoforrning foam sheet. and
`o Other semi~thertnoforming technologies.
`
`Chapter 10, “Set-Up Protocols. Troubleshooting, and the Economics of Thermo-
`l'orming“.
`is an assemblage of production and economic issues that were scattered
`through several chapters of‘ the 198? monograph. Guidelines to setting up a new
`mold. forming a new polymer and troubleshooting both the thin-gage and heavy-
`gage forming process are found here. Thennofotrning is an energy intensive process
`that uses only a portion of its raw material, sheet,
`to make the part. To be
`competitive, the themoformer must know what things cost,
`in detail. This chapter
`focuses on this theme.
`
`Caveats are in order. Some of the engineering details are quite technical. The
`monograph is designed to provide a technical foundation for the industry. Neverthe-
`less,
`the casual reader should find ample guidelines, protocols,
`tips and rules-of-
`thumb to help himfher with specific processing problems or new product planning.
`The decade or so since I wrote the Thermoforming monograph has been marked
`by retirement and deaths of many thermofonning leaders. Most notably. Dr.
`Herman "Dick" Osmers. SPE Themofonner—of—the-Year,
`fellow PhD chemical
`engineer-consultant-teacher and critical reviewer of the 1985 book, died shortly after
`it was published. I will always miss his technical accuracy. his thoroughness. and his
`tsp-beat enthusiasm. This book is dedicated to his memory.
`
`January 1996
`
`James L. Throne. PhD
`
`(cid:926)(cid:3)(cid:1005)(cid:1013)(cid:1013)(cid:1010)(cid:3)(cid:18)(cid:258)(cid:396)(cid:367)(cid:3)(cid:44)(cid:258)(cid:374)(cid:400)(cid:286)(cid:396)(cid:3)(cid:115)(cid:286)(cid:396)(cid:367)(cid:258)(cid:336)(cid:856)(cid:3)(cid:4)(cid:367)(cid:367)(cid:3)(cid:396)(cid:349)(cid:336)(cid:346)(cid:410)(cid:400)(cid:3)(cid:396)(cid:286)(cid:400)(cid:286)(cid:396)(cid:448)(cid:286)(cid:282)(cid:856)(cid:3)
`© 1996 Carl Hanser Verlag. All rights reserved.
`(cid:69)(cid:381)(cid:3)(cid:437)(cid:374)(cid:258)(cid:437)(cid:410)(cid:346)(cid:381)(cid:396)(cid:349)(cid:460)(cid:286)(cid:282)(cid:3)(cid:282)(cid:349)(cid:400)(cid:272)(cid:367)(cid:381)(cid:400)(cid:437)(cid:396)(cid:286)(cid:3)(cid:381)(cid:396)(cid:3)(cid:396)(cid:286)(cid:393)(cid:396)(cid:381)(cid:282)(cid:437)(cid:272)(cid:410)(cid:349)(cid:381)(cid:374)(cid:854)(cid:3)(cid:367)(cid:349)(cid:272)(cid:286)(cid:374)(cid:400)(cid:286)(cid:282)(cid:3)(cid:410)(cid:381)(cid:3)(cid:393)(cid:437)(cid:396)(cid:272)(cid:346)(cid:258)(cid:400)(cid:286)(cid:396)(cid:3)(cid:381)(cid:374)(cid:367)(cid:455)(cid:856)
`No unauthorized disclosure or reproduction; licensed to purchaser only.
`
`0008
`
`0008
`
`

`

`(cid:926)(cid:3)(cid:1005)(cid:1013)(cid:1013)(cid:1010)(cid:3)(cid:18)(cid:258)(cid:396)(cid:367)(cid:3)(cid:44)(cid:258)(cid:374)(cid:400)(cid:286)(cid:396)(cid:3)(cid:115)(cid:286)(cid:396)(cid:367)(cid:258)(cid:336)(cid:856)(cid:3)(cid:4)(cid:367)(cid:367)(cid:3)(cid:396)(cid:349)(cid:336)(cid:346)(cid:410)(cid:400)(cid:3)(cid:396)(cid:286)(cid:400)(cid:286)(cid:396)(cid:448)(cid:286)(cid:282)(cid:856)(cid:3)
`© 1996 Carl Hanser Verlag. All rights reserved.
`(cid:69)(cid:381)(cid:3)(cid:437)(cid:374)(cid:258)(cid:437)(cid:410)(cid:346)(cid:381)(cid:396)(cid:349)(cid:460)(cid:286)(cid:282)(cid:3)(cid:282)(cid:349)(cid:400)(cid:272)(cid:367)(cid:381)(cid:400)(cid:437)(cid:396)(cid:286)(cid:3)(cid:381)(cid:396)(cid:3)(cid:396)(cid:286)(cid:393)(cid:396)(cid:381)(cid:282)(cid:437)(cid:272)(cid:410)(cid:349)(cid:381)(cid:374)(cid:854)(cid:3)(cid:367)(cid:349)(cid:272)(cid:286)(cid:374)(cid:400)(cid:286)(cid:282)(cid:3)(cid:410)(cid:381)(cid:3)(cid:393)(cid:437)(cid:396)(cid:272)(cid:346)(cid:258)(cid:400)(cid:286)(cid:396)(cid:3)(cid:381)(cid:374)(cid:367)(cid:455)(cid:856)
`No unauthorized disclosure or reproduction; licensed to purchaser only.
`
`0009
`
`0009
`
`

`

`Contents
`
`1 Thermoforming—Definitions, History, Methods and Equipment ........
`
`l.l Introduction .........................................
`L2 History ............................................
`[.3 Markets ...........................................
`1.4 Some Definitions ......................................
`Gage .............................................
`Clamping of Thin-Gage Sheet ...............................
`Clamping of Heavy~Gage Sheet ..............................
`Heating of Thin-Gage Sheet ................................
`Heating Heavy—Gage Sheet ................................
`Shaping Thin—Gage Sheet .................................
`Shaping Heavy-Gage Sheet ................................
`Trimming the Thin-Gage Sheet ..............................
`Trimming the Heavy-Gage Sheet .............................
`Depth—of-Draw .......................................
`[.5 Methods of Forming ....................................
`One-Step Forming .....................................
`TWO‘Step Forming with Prestretching ..........................
`Multi-Step Forming ....................................
`Other Variations ......................................
`1.6 Thermoforming Machinery ................................
`Heating Source .......................................
`Forming Platform ......................................
`Vacuum System .......................................
`Pressure System .......................................
`Process Control .......................................
`Trimming and Cut Parts Handling ............................
`1.7 Heavvaage Thermofortning Machinery Specifies ...................
`1.3 Thin-Gage Thermoforming Machinery Specifics ....................
`l.9 References ..........................................
`
`2 Polymeric Materials ...................................
`
`Introduction ........................................
`2.!
`2.2 Network Nature of Polymers ..............................
`2.3 Addition and Condensation Polymerization ......................
`2.4 Aromatic and Aliphatic Polymers ............................
`2.5 Molecular Weight and Molecular Weight Distribution ................
`2.6 Molecular Weight and Properties ............................
`2.7 Morphology and Properties ...............................
`2.3 Molecular Orientation ..................................
`2.9 Chain Mobility and Polymer Stiffness .........................
`2.]0 Stress-Crack Resistance ..................................
`2.” Gas Permeation ......................................
`2.12 Copolymerization .....................................
`2.13 Blends ............................................
`2.14 Adducts ...........................................
`Plasticizers .........................................
`
`(cid:926)(cid:3)(cid:1005)(cid:1013)(cid:1013)(cid:1010)(cid:3)(cid:18)(cid:258)(cid:396)(cid:367)(cid:3)(cid:44)(cid:258)(cid:374)(cid:400)(cid:286)(cid:396)(cid:3)(cid:115)(cid:286)(cid:396)(cid:367)(cid:258)(cid:336)(cid:856)(cid:3)(cid:4)(cid:367)(cid:367)(cid:3)(cid:396)(cid:349)(cid:336)(cid:346)(cid:410)(cid:400)(cid:3)(cid:396)(cid:286)(cid:400)(cid:286)(cid:396)(cid:448)(cid:286)(cid:282)(cid:856)(cid:3)
`© 1996 Carl Hanser Verlag. All rights reserved.
`(cid:69)(cid:381)(cid:3)(cid:437)(cid:374)(cid:258)(cid:437)(cid:410)(cid:346)(cid:381)(cid:396)(cid:349)(cid:460)(cid:286)(cid:282)(cid:3)(cid:282)(cid:349)(cid:400)(cid:272)(cid:367)(cid:381)(cid:400)(cid:437)(cid:396)(cid:286)(cid:3)(cid:381)(cid:396)(cid:3)(cid:396)(cid:286)(cid:393)(cid:396)(cid:381)(cid:282)(cid:437)(cid:272)(cid:410)(cid:349)(cid:381)(cid:374)(cid:854)(cid:3)(cid:367)(cid:349)(cid:272)(cid:286)(cid:374)(cid:400)(cid:286)(cid:282)(cid:3)(cid:410)(cid:381)(cid:3)(cid:393)(cid:437)(cid:396)(cid:272)(cid:346)(cid:258)(cid:400)(cid:286)(cid:396)(cid:3)(cid:381)(cid:374)(cid:367)(cid:455)(cid:856)
`No unauthorized disclosure or reproduction; licensed to purchaser only.
`
`0010
`
`0010
`
`

`

`it
`
`Contents
`
`Other Additives ......................................
`Fillers and Reinforcing Fibers ..............................
`2.15 Laminates..........................................
`2.16 Stress-Strain Behavior of Plastics ............................
`2.1}I Theme] Properties ....................................
`Heat Capacity .......................................
`Thermal Conductivity ...................................
`Thermal Difl'usivity ....................................
`Thermal Expansion Coefficient .............................
`2.I3 Infrared Spectra ......................................
`2.19 Summary ..........................................
`2.20 References .........................................
`
`3 Heating the Sheet .....................................
`
`3.1
`
`Introduction ........................................
`
`3.2 Energy Absorption by Sheet ...............................
`3.3 Heat Transfer Modes ...................................
`3.4
`Incorporating Forma'oility and Time-Dependent Heating ..............
`3.5 Conduction .........................................
`3.6 Convection Heat Transfer Coefficient ..........................
`The Biot Number .....................................
`Effective Radiation Heat Transfer Coefficient .....................
`Constant Heat Flux ....................................
`3.? Radiation Heating .................. . ..................
`Black Body Radiation ..................................
`Gray Body—Emissivity ..................................
`Radiant Heater Efficiency—Constant Heat Flux Application ............
`3.3 Real Heatem—Efiiciencies ................................
`Radiative Heat Transfer Coefficient ...........................
`Convection and the Heat Transfer Coefficient .....................
`Rod Heaters ........................................
`3.9 Long-Term Radiant Heater Efficiencies .........................
`3.10 Edge Losses——View Factor ................................
`Local Energy Input ....................................
`Pattern Heating ......................................
`Zone. Zoned or Zonal Heating .............................
`Heater to Sheet Distance .................................
`3.11 Thin-Gage Sheet—Approximate Heating Rates ....................
`Constant Environmental Temperature Approximation ................
`Constant Heat Flux Approximation ..........................
`Thin-Gage Approximations—Comments ........................
`3.12 Heavy—Gage Sheet—internal Temperature Control ..................
`Constant Environmental Temperature .........................
`The Constant Heat Flux Case ..............................
`The Thickness Effect ...................................
`Summary ..........................................
`3.13 Equilibration ........................................
`Convection Heating ....................................
`Constant Heat Flux ....................................
`Computed Equilibration Times .............................
`The W-L-F Equation ...................................
`
`76
`‘17
`78
`78
`32
`82
`84
`84
`87
`87
`96
`1113
`
`106
`
`106
`
`106
`110
`115
`121
`124
`125
`126
`1.21r
`128
`129
`134
`138
`140
`I44
`I45
`ISO
`151
`152
`155
`159
`I61
`162
`164
`164
`167
`1157
`I68
`168
`1'12
`1'14
`175
`176
`17?
`179
`180
`181
`
`(cid:926)(cid:3)(cid:1005)(cid:1013)(cid:1013)(cid:1010)(cid:3)(cid:18)(cid:258)(cid:396)(cid:367)(cid:3)(cid:44)(cid:258)(cid:374)(cid:400)(cid:286)(cid:396)(cid:3)(cid:115)(cid:286)(cid:396)(cid:367)(cid:258)(cid:336)(cid:856)(cid:3)(cid:4)(cid:367)(cid:367)(cid:3)(cid:396)(cid:349)(cid:336)(cid:346)(cid:410)(cid:400)(cid:3)(cid:396)(cid:286)(cid:400)(cid:286)(cid:396)(cid:448)(cid:286)(cid:282)(cid:856)(cid:3)
`© 1996 Carl Hanser Verlag. All rights reserved.
`(cid:69)(cid:381)(cid:3)(cid:437)(cid:374)(cid:258)(cid:437)(cid:410)(cid:346)(cid:381)(cid:396)(cid:349)(cid:460)(cid:286)(cid:282)(cid:3)(cid:282)(cid:349)(cid:400)(cid:272)(cid:367)(cid:381)(cid:400)(cid:437)(cid:396)(cid:286)(cid:3)(cid:381)(cid:396)(cid:3)(cid:396)(cid:286)(cid:393)(cid:396)(cid:381)(cid:282)(cid:437)(cid:272)(cid:410)(cid:349)(cid:381)(cid:374)(cid:854)(cid:3)(cid:367)(cid:349)(cid:272)(cid:286)(cid:374)(cid:400)(cid:286)(cid:282)(cid:3)(cid:410)(cid:381)(cid:3)(cid:393)(cid:437)(cid:396)(cid:272)(cid:346)(cid:258)(cid:400)(cid:286)(cid:396)(cid:3)(cid:381)(cid:374)(cid:367)(cid:455)(cid:856)
`No unauthorized disclosure or reproduction; licensed to purchaser only.
`
`0011
`
`0011
`
`

`

`Contents
`
`xi
`
`The Arrhenius Equation .................................
`Relating Shift Factors to Sheet Thickness .......................
`3.14 Infrared-Transparent Polymers ..............................
`3.15 Computer-Aided Prediction of Sheet Temperature ..................
`The Radiant Boundary Condition ............................
`3.16 Guidelines for Determining Heating Cycles ......................
`The Blot Number .....................................
`Thin-Gage Guidelines ...................................
`Heavy-Gage Guidelines ..................................
`Intermediate~Gage Guidelines ..............................
`3.1? References .........................................
`
`182
`182
`182
`188
`192
`[92
`193
`I93
`193
`194
`194
`
`4 Stretching the Sheet ...................................
`
`197
`
`198
`Introduction ........................................
`4.1
`4.2 The Stretching Concept .................................. 202
`4.3 Polymer Hot Strength ................................... 208
`Standard Tensile Tests .................................. 208
`Hot Tensile Tests .....................................
`212
`Hot Creep Tests ......................................
`213
`Other Stretching Tests ..................................
`215
`Temperature-Dependent Viscosity for Amorphous Polymers ............
`217
`Dynamic Mechanical Testing .............................. 222
`4.4 Stress-Strain-Rate of Strain—Theory ..........................
`225
`Elasticity—A Rationalization ..............................
`233
`Strain Energy Function .................................. 235
`The Rivlin Form for the Strain Energy Function ...................
`236
`The Ogden Form for the Strain Energy Function ..................
`239
`Viscoelastic Models ....................................
`240
`4.5 Available Stress-Strain Data ............................... 242
`Sensitivity of Models ................................... 247
`4.6 The Importance of Polymer Material Properties ...................
`248
`4.7 Practical Aspects of Stretching.............................. 25?
`Funnel Test ........................................ 260
`4.8 Bursting Conditions .................................... 264
`4.9 Sheet Sag .......................................... 266
`Initial Sag ......................................... 267
`Tensile Sag .........................................
`268
`The Catenary Sag .....................................
`269
`Parabolic Sag .......................................
`270
`Relating Sag to Hot Sheet Strength ...........................
`271
`Sag -A Comment ..................................... 276
`4.10 References ......................................... 2??
`Appendix 4.[ Biaxial Stretching of an Elastic Membrane .................
`282
`
`5 Cooling and Trimming the Part ............................
`
`284
`
`285
`Introduction ........................................
`5.1
`5.2 Overall Cooling Heat Balance .............................. 285
`5.3 Cooling the Formed Shape ................................ 2871'
`5.4 Steady State Heat Balance ................................
`288
`Interfacial Resistance ...................................
`289
`Shape Factor ........................................
`291
`Convection Heat Transfer Coefficient ..........................
`293
`
`(cid:926)(cid:3)(cid:1005)(cid:1013)(cid:1013)(cid:1010)(cid:3)(cid:18)(cid:258)(cid:396)(cid:367)(cid:3)(cid:44)(cid:258)(cid:374)(cid:400)(cid:286)(cid:396)(cid:3)(cid:115)(cid:286)(cid:396)(cid:367)(cid:258)(cid:336)(cid:856)(cid:3)(cid:4)(cid:367)(cid:367)(cid:3)(cid:396)(cid:349)(cid:336)(cid:346)(cid:410)(cid:400)(cid:3)(cid:396)(cid:286)(cid:400)(cid:286)(cid:396)(cid:448)(cid:286)(cid:282)(cid:856)(cid:3)
`© 1996 Carl Hanser Verlag. All rights reserved.
`(cid:69)(cid:381)(cid:3)(cid:437)(cid:374)(cid:258)(cid:437)(cid:410)(cid:346)(cid:381)(cid:396)(cid:349)(cid:460)(cid:286)(cid:282)(cid:3)(cid:282)(cid:349)(cid:400)(cid:272)(cid:367)(cid:381)(cid:400)(cid:437)(cid:396)(cid:286)(cid:3)(cid:381)(cid:396)(cid:3)(cid:396)(cid:286)(cid:393)(cid:396)(cid:381)(cid:282)(cid:437)(cid:272)(cid:410)(cid:349)(cid:381)(ci