`
`O-I Glass, Inc.
`Exhibit 1008
`Page 001
`
`O-I Glass, Inc.
`Exhibit 1008
`Page 001
`
`

`

`~LASS THE
`
`MIRACLE
`MAKER
`
`11:S HISTORY, TECHNOLOGY, MANUFACTURE,
`. ND APPLICATIONS
`
`by
`C. J. Phillips
`
`Pittsburgh Plate Glass Compmy
`
`SECOND EDITION
`
`lTMAN PUBLISHING CORPORATION
`ew YORK
`. LONDON
`
`O-I Glass, Inc.
`Exhibit 1008
`Page 002
`
`

`

`CoPYRIGHT, 1941, 1948
`
`llY
`PITMAN PUBLISHING CORPORATION
`
`All rights reserved. No part of this book
`may be reprodueed. in any form without
`the written permission of the publisher.
`
`2.I
`
`Associated Companies
`Sm lsAAc PITMAN & SoNs, Lrn.
`London Melbourne
`Johannesburg Geneva
`Sm lSAAc PITMAN & SoNs (CANADA), LTD.
`Toronto
`
`PRINTED IN TIIE UNITED STA1ES OF AMERICA
`
`O-I Glass, Inc.
`Exhibit 1008
`Page 003
`
`

`

`Contents
`
`OREWORD TO THE SECOND EDITION •
`
`REWORD TO THE FIRST EDITION
`
`Part One: History and Technology
`THE GLASS OF YEARS GoNE BY
`The First Period
`.
`The Second Period
`The Modem Period
`
`GLASS TooAY .
`The Vitreous State
`Preliminary Fundamentals
`Glass Production Statistics
`
`.
`
`3. THE CHEMISTRY OF GLASS
`Introduction
`The Constitution of Glass
`The Glass-forming Oxides
`Composition of Commercial GJasses
`Chemical Durability
`.
`4. THE MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF GLASS
`Introduction
`Elastic Properties .
`Brittleness
`Hardness
`fracture Systems .
`Effect of Flaws on Tensile Strength
`The Strength of Glass .
`Thermal Endurance
`s. OTHER PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF GLASS
`Density
`Coefficient of Expansion
`
`xv
`
`•
`
`IX
`
`Xl
`
`Xl11
`
`3
`3
`6
`13
`21
`21
`24
`27
`
`30
`30
`31
`33
`38
`S1
`S7
`S7
`59
`61
`63
`66
`70
`73
`88
`
`91
`91
`92
`
`O-I Glass, Inc.
`Exhibit 1008
`Page 004
`
`

`

`XVI
`
`CONTENTS
`
`Specific Heat and Heat Conductivity
`Viscosity
`Electrical Properties
`Optical Properties
`
`Part Two: Manufacture
`6. MATERIALS HANDLING
`Raw Materials
`Unloading
`.
`Storage
`Weighing and Mixing .
`Transport and Charging
`
`7. FUELS, REFRACTORIES, FURNACES, AND THE MELTING
`PROCESS
`Fuel
`Pyrometry
`Refractories .
`Furnaces
`The Melting Process
`
`8. THE PRINCIPLES OF GLASSWORKING •
`Introduction
`"Offhand" Glass Blqwing
`Molds
`.
`Hot Iron Mold Ware .
`Paste Mold Ware .
`Press Mold Ware .
`Tubes and Rods
`Casting.
`Lamp-working
`Optical Glass
`
`9. GLASSWORKING MACHINERY
`Introduction
`Gathering or Feeding Methods
`Pressing Machines
`Paste-mold ·Blowing Machines
`Press-and-blow Machines
`Drawing and Rolling
`.
`
`94
`95
`99
`110
`
`125
`125
`129
`130
`131
`134
`
`137
`137
`138
`141
`146
`154
`
`156
`156
`157
`164
`166
`168
`170
`173
`175
`. 181
`189
`
`• 193
`193
`194
`197
`. 198
`203
`206
`
`O-I Glass, Inc.
`Exhibit 1008
`Page 005
`
`

`

`CONTENTS
`1 o. FINISHING, ANNEALING, DECORATION, AND INSPECTION
`Finishing Operations
`Annealing
`Decorative Processes
`Inspection
`
`Part Three: Applications
`11. GLASS IN ARCHITECTURE AND BUILDING U>NSTRUCTION
`Flat Glass
`Pressed or Cast Glass
`Foam Glass .
`12. GLASS IN THE HoME
`Mirrors and Furniture .
`Cooking Utensils and Tableware
`Containers
`.
`Milady's Fancies .
`Art Glass
`13. GLASS IN THE ELECTRICAL INDUSTRY
`Transmission and Communication
`Electronic Tubes .
`Radio
`Television
`Miscellaneous
`14. GLASS IN ILLUMINATION •
`Introduction
`The Incandescent Lamp
`Vapor-discharge Sources
`Light-control Methods.
`Commercial, Architectural, Residential Lighting
`Lighting for Transportation .
`15. GLASS IN MANUFACTURE •
`Introduction
`. Glass for Manufacturing Processes
`Glass in Manufactured Products
`16. GLASS IN SCIENCE AND RESEARCH
`Optical Instruments
`Laboratory Glassware .
`
`•.
`
`xvii
`
`22 3
`223
`2 2 7
`2 3 7
`243
`
`255
`256
`2 7 4
`281
`284
`2 84
`287
`292
`293
`294
`305
`306
`3 09
`310
`314
`315
`316
`316
`318
`326
`335
`344
`3 5 0
`358
`358
`361
`369
`372
`374
`383
`
`O-I Glass, Inc.
`Exhibit 1008
`Page 006
`
`

`

`XVlll
`
`CONTENTS
`
`The Thennometer
`Glass in Medicine
`Miscellaneous
`17. FIBER GLASS
`•
`Insulation against Heat and Cold
`Sound Absorption
`..
`Air Filters
`Electrical Insulation
`Gl~ss-sillcones and Glass-plasti~s .
`Decorative Fabrics
`Miscellaneous
`
`INDEX
`
`388
`391
`394
`
`398
`399
`. 404
`404
`407
`413
`415
`416
`
`421
`
`O-I Glass, Inc.
`Exhibit 1008
`Page 007
`
`

`

`I
`
`The Glass of Years Gone By
`
`For I am older than the Pyramids yet newer tban to(cid:173)
`morrow's unborn dawn -withal the marks of time
`affect me not -
`for I am ageless and retain my lustrous
`beauty permanently.
`
`THE HISTORY OF GLASS had its beginning in the mists of antiquity, for
`glass itself is as old as the earth. Long before man was able to manu(cid:173)
`facture glass artificially, he shaped objects by hand from the glasses
`formed by nature. The commonest of these, o~n, is of volcanic
`origin and is usually translucent but sometimes transparent, usually
`black but sometimes green or red or brown. It is readily broken into
`sharp, elongated pieces; which can then be fashioned into arrowheads,
`spearheads, knife blades, or razors. Stone Age man used obsidian in
`this way and more advanced cultures used it for ceremonial masks,
`for mirrors, and for jewelry. Objects made from this hard, glossy
`material have been found all over the world, from Greece to Pata(cid:173)
`gonia. Obsidian became an article of commerce as early as the Bronze
`Age and it contimied to be used for thousands of years.
`
`THE FIRST PERIOD
`
`GLASS AT THE DAWN OF HISTORY
`The manufacture of glass is one of the arts based on fire. Where and
`when such manufacture began we do not know. Perhaps glass was
`first produced accidentally by the fusion of sand and soda in an open
`fire as related by Pliny.1 Experiments show conclusively that glass
`can be made in this way. Perhaps it was formed by the burning of
`grain and subsequent fusion of the ash as the result of fire caused by
`lightning. Such "lightng!g_stones" have been found and analyzed. In
`any event, it seems likely that the first deliberate attempts to make
`glass were a consequence of the potter's art, the most ancient of the
`3
`
`O-I Glass, Inc.
`Exhibit 1008
`Page 008
`
`

`

`4
`
`GLASS: THE MIRACLE MAKER
`
`arts dependent on fire. Historically, the development of coJg.r.ecLglaus
`for coating pottery or beads of stone or clay seems to have preceded
`the manufacture of objects made wholly from glass. Either ancient
`man at this time did not look upon glass as having beauty and utility
`in its own right, or he did not recognize the similarities between · a
`glaze and a glass and was forced to discover the latter independently.
`For many years it was thought that glass was first made artificially
`in Egypt. There is now much evidence indicating that we must look
`to Asia Minor, probably Mesopotamia, for its origin. Sir W. M.
`Flinders Petrie, to whom we must credit much of our knowledge of
`ancient glass, says: 2
`
`The earliest glaze known is that on stone beads of the Badarian age in
`Egypt, about 12,000 B.c. This is green. That civilization was intrusive,
`probably from Asia. Green glaze was applied to powdered quartz basis
`for making small :figures about 9000 B.c., and was ever after so common in
`moulded beads that it was certainly of Egyptian manufacture.
`The oldest pure glass is a moulded amulet of deep lapis lazuli color, of
`about 7000 B.c. Fragments of green opaque glass inlay appear in the First
`Dynasty about 5000 B.c. Striped black and white glass amulets came in
`the Eleventh Dynasty, about 3800 B.c. An elaborate fused glass mosaic
`of a calf is in jewelry of 3300 u.c. from Dahshur. Blue translucent beads
`appear about 1570 B.c. All of these occurrences of dateable glass in Egypt
`were probably due to importation from Asia.
`
`Frankfort 3 found a cylinder of light blue glass at Tell Asmar,
`northwest of Baghdad, which he believes dates to 2700- 2600 B.c. In
`this same region, glass beads were plentiful in the excavation of a
`cemetery dating to 2450 B.c. Whatever archeological disagreements
`there may be over the authenticity of these dates, they do definitely
`establish the manufacture of glass as an industry of great antiquity.
`The manufacture of glass emerges from historical obscurity and
`becomes a stable, continuous industry in Egypt at the beginning of
`the Eighteenth Dynasty. Tbe oldest piece of glass_ bearing a definite
`date is a large ball-bead of this period with the cartouche of Amen(cid:173)
`hotep ( 15 51-15 2 7 B.c.). Small decorative glass bottles bearing the
`cartouche of King Thothmes III (1527-1475 :{3.c.), and glass beacls
`inscribed to his queen, have also been found. The remains of glass(cid:173)
`works built during this period can still be seen.4 This was a time of
`great fertility in Egyptian art, and much of the glass was more durable
`than that made in later periods and exhibited superior craftsmanship
`in its creation. The Egyptians posse~sed an amazing knowledge of
`
`O-I Glass, Inc.
`Exhibit 1008
`Page 009
`
`

`

`THE GLASS OF YEARS· GONE BY
`
`5
`
`metallurgy -
`they used tin oxide to make white opaque glass; tur(cid:173)
`quoise blue came from the use of copper, and the same metal was
`employed for red and green glasses. Transparent glass was rare at
`this time, not qnly because it would have been difficult to make, with(cid:173)
`out knowledge of decolorizing agents, but also equally because trans-
`
`FIGURE 1.1. Egyptian vase, 1350-1205
`B.c. Dark blue translucent glass decorated
`with festoons of impressed threads of
`white, yellow, and turquoise blue. Height
`31~6 in. (Courtesy, Toledo Museum of
`Art)
`
`FIGURE 1.2. Egyptian ewer, 600-400
`B.c. Dark blue translucent glass molded
`over a core. Decoration of applied and
`impressed threads of white, yellow, and
`turquoise blue forming fern pattern.
`Height 6 in. (Courtesy, Toledo Mu(cid:173)
`seum of Art)
`
`parency was unnecessary. Glass was used almost exclusively for per(cid:173)
`sonal adornment and, because of the difficulty and expense of manu(cid:173)
`facturing it, was considered equal in value to the natural gems, with
`which it was frequent y combined. For example, the collar of
`Nekhebet, found in the tomb of Tutankhamen, is composed of 255
`separate gold plaques, inlaid in cloissonne fashion with jasper, and lapis
`lazuli, and -
`turquoise-colored glass.
`Glass was used a little later for hollow vessels such as unguent jars
`and small vases. These were not blown - the art of glass blowing was
`not yet known - and when one understands the difficulties under
`which these ancient peoples labored, due to the limitations of their
`
`O-I Glass, Inc.
`Exhibit 1008
`Page 010
`
`

`

`6
`
`GLASS: THE MIRACLE MAKER
`
`methods and equipment, it is possible to appreciate fully the patience,
`ingenuity, and delicate craftsmanship often exhibited in their products.
`Hollow vessels were molded by winding rods of hot, softened glass
`around a central core of sand built up on a metal rod. Alternatively,
`such a core might be dipped several times into a pot of molten glass,
`the glass being built up to the required thickness bit by bit. About
`1200 B.c. the Egyptians learned how to press glass into open molds,
`and this made possible the production of bowls, dishes, and cups which
`could not be made by the sand-core method. Sometimes hundreds of
`colored glass threads, each no more than a thousandth of an inch in
`~iameter, might be applied to a vase which would then be softened by
`reheating and thus pulled into bright, variegated patterns. All this
`meant that glass was a luxury in Egypt, a precious luxury to be care(cid:173)
`fully preserved from generation to generation. Examples of the glass
`of this period are shown in Figures I.I and 1.2.
`From about 15 50 B.c. until the beginning of the Christian Era,
`Egypt remained the m1cleus of glass manufacture. The industry
`gradually became centralized at Alexandria from which place the
`Phoenician traders carried it to all the countries of the Mediterranean.
`
`THE SECOND PERIOD
`
`THE INVENTION OF THE BLOWPIPE
`The invention of the blowpipe, even though time and place cannot
`be fixed with certainty, must be considered one of the truly great dis(cid:173)
`coveries of mankind. It caused an industrial revolution which changed
`glass from a luxury into a necessity. It gave revealing glimpses of the
`true capabilities of the material and made possible the quantity pro(cid:173)
`duction of glass articles in shapes and designs previously impossible to
`produce. The glass prepared without the aid of the blowpipe has been
`compared to pottery made by hand before the invention of the potter's
`wheel.
`Kisa ~ assigns the invention to the period between 300 B.c. and
`20 B.c., and most authorities feel that blown glass owes its origin and
`development to Phoenician workers of that time. All are agreed that
`the blowpipe was then about the same size and shape as it is today -
`a hollow iron tube 4 to 5 ft. long, a knob at one end, a mouthpiece at
`the other. This simple device, in the hands of skilled workmen, made
`possible the creation of an almost endless variety of hollow glass
`objects. In "offhand" blowing the worker makes a "gather" by dip-
`
`O-I Glass, Inc.
`Exhibit 1008
`Page 011
`
`

`

`THE' GLASS OF YEARS GONE BY
`
`7
`
`ping the knob-shaped end of the blowpipe into a pot of hot, viscous
`glass. If the blowpipe is then dexterously removed a mass of the hot
`glass will adhere to one end. If the worker now blows through the
`mouthpiece, gently or vigorously, the gather can be· blown into a
`hollow bulb, thick or thin. By swinging and rotating this bulb of still
`hot glass, by rolling and otherwise manipulating it with a few simple
`tools, and by reheating it from time to time as it cools in working, a
`hollow vessel of almost any symmetrical shape can be created. This
`method is still used today and our very finest art glass is made in this
`way. The process can be expanded to include almost any shape by
`blowing the glass into molds.
`At about the beginning of the Christian Era means )Vere found for
`producing the first relatively clear, transparent glass. The experiments
`leading to this result may have been stimulated by the- advanced
`technique of the blowpipe because transparency and freedom from
`color are very desirable qualities in blown ware. An early name for
`such glass was "crystal" glass because of the desire to produce a glass
`as colorless and transparent as pure rock crystal. The term is still in
`common use today to distinguish such glass from colored, translucent,
`or opaque varieties.
`
`THE FrnsT GoLDEN AGE - RoME
`The first four centuries of the Christian Era justly may be called the
`first golden age of glass. Owing in part to the invention of the blow(cid:173)
`pipe, and in part to the commercial stability of the Roman Empire, the
`manufacture and use of glass became more widespread than it has·
`been at any other time until comparatively recently. Glass manu(cid:173)
`facture flourished in every country conquered by Rome - in Egypt
`and Syria, in Greece and Italy, and in the western provinces of Gaul
`and Brittany. The Roman Emperor, Alexander Severus, imposed a
`tax on the glass manufacturers of Rome in A.D. 220. These manu(cid:173)
`facturers had become so numerous that a section of the city was
`assigned to them. Constantine ( A.D. 3 06-3 3 7) remitted the tax, and
`this act may have accelerated further the growth of the industry dur(cid:173)
`ing the· Fourth Century. During this period certain kinds of glass
`actually became a household necessity although others remained a
`personal luxury.
`In the older religions of Greece and Rome the practice of cremation
`necessitated the use of some suitable receptacle for the ashes of the
`dead. Glass of ten was used for such funerary furniture, particularly
`
`O-I Glass, Inc.
`Exhibit 1008
`Page 012
`
`

`

`8
`
`GLASS: THE MIRACLE MAKER
`
`during the First and Second Centuries. During this time the Roman
`glassmakers were making colored vases of such great beauty that they
`were more precious than gold or silver vases and could be possessed
`only by the wealthy. In making cameo vases they superimposed glass
`of one color on glass of another color and then carved cameo designs
`through the outer layer. The Portland vase found in the tomb of
`Alexander Severus is such a vase and is one of the most highly prized
`
`b
`a
`C
`(a) Cup with enamel wreath. (b ) Jug with applied bands. ( c) Mold(cid:173)
`FrGuRE 1.3.
`blown beaker. Roman period. (Courtesy, Metropolitan Museum, New York)
`
`------~·-··
`
`I
`I
`_____ J
`
`objects of antiquity. The scene, cut out of a layer of opaque white
`glass, stands out from an unbeli'evably beautiful deep blue background.
`By the end of the Third Century window glass begins to be men(cid:173)
`tioned. Lactantius, in A.D. 290, wrote that "our soul sees and dis(cid:173)
`tinguishes objects by the eyes of the body as through windows filled
`with glass." Jerome, A.D. 331, speaks of sheets or plates of glass pro(cid:173)
`duced by casting on a large flat stone, and this was probably the
`earliest forerunner of modern glass manufacture.
`The glassworkers of this age were masters of almost all the technical
`processes of manufacture and decoration which have subsequently
`proved to be of major importance. They mastered the difficult art of
`offhand blowing and also knew how to manipulate the glass with tongs
`to produce studs or bosses on the outer surface. They produced mosaic
`glass in many forms, some with the colors intermingled at random and
`others in a definite but h,ighly complicated color sequence. Thus, glass
`
`O-I Glass, Inc.
`Exhibit 1008
`Page 013
`
`

`

`THE GLASS OF YEARS GONE BY
`
`9
`
`threads of many colors might be arranged so that when fused into a
`solid rod the rod would have a multi-colored cross-section in the form
`of a flower, a rosette, or a geometrical ornament. Disks would be cut
`from this rod, laid side by side, and encased in colorless, transparent
`glass. This mosaic - a thing of beauty itself,_ was then worked up
`into the justly famous Millefiori vessels. Painting and gilding were also
`employed. The onyx glass of Alexandria was created by cutting out
`designs in high relief from layers of glass of various colors. It was per(cid:173)
`haps inspired by the semiprecious onyx stone with its orderly trans(cid:173)
`lucent and opaque strata. The Portland vase is an example of this
`
`•
`
`b
`a
`C
`(a) and (c) Millefiori bowls. 1(b) Onyx flask. Roman period. (Courtesy,
`FIGURE 1.4.
`,..._.
`Metropolitan Museum, New York)
`
`genre. Figures 1.3 and 1.4 show a variety of Roman glass objects.
`Harden 6 lists the following classes of ware of this period, found at
`Karanis in Roman Egypt: (I) dishes and plates; (2) shallow and deep
`bowls, some on a stem; ( 3) beakers and goblets; ( 4) conical lamps;
`(5) drinking cups and goblets on a stem; (6) jars; (7) flasks; (8) jugs
`and bottles; ( 9) toilet bottles; and ( 10) miscellaneous items -
`lids,
`bracelets, finger rings and ring stones, amulets, rods, spoons, lenses,
`gaming pieces, pierced buttons, disks stamped in relief, fragments of
`inlay, and fragments of window glass. An amazing array of glass
`objects made by man fifteen centuries ago!
`
`GLASS DURING THE DARK AGES
`Comparatively little is known about the manufacture and use of
`glass between the fall of the Roman Empire and the Eleventh Century.
`This gap of over six hundred years is partly due to the invasion of
`
`O-I Glass, Inc.
`Exhibit 1008
`Page 014
`
`

`

`10
`
`GLASS: THE MIRACLE MAKER
`
`Western Europe by the barbaric tribes of Germany and also partly due
`to the growing influence of the Christian religion which prohibited the
`burial of valuable objects with the dead. The glass products of this
`period are therefore scarce principally because they were no longer
`well or widely preserved. It is ironic that the Church should have
`taken away such a valuable source of glass relics because in later ages
`the Church had a highly beneficial, if indirect, effect upon glass
`manufacture.
`At the end of the Fourth Century the Byzantine Empire became es(cid:173)
`tablished with its capital at Constantinople. Here glass manufacture
`was carried on after the fall of Rome. The Dark Ages of the West
`were a period of great progress in the Islamic world and these Byzan(cid:173)
`tine workers brought to glass a highly developed artistic taste, par(cid:173)
`ticularly in the use of color. In the Sixth Century the Emperor
`Justinian employed skilled glassworkers to make stained-glass win(cid:173)
`dows for the great church of Constantinople. The use of glass for
`windows spread continuously, but slowly., first to France, a century
`later to England. One of the earliest records of the use of stained(cid:173)
`glass windows was made by Adalberon, Bishop of Rheims, when re(cid:173)
`building the cathedral in A.D. 969-988. Slowly, year by year, and
`century by century, the use of stained glass in church windows grew
`until, during the later Middle Ages, no church could be considered·
`complete without this form of decoration. These glorious stained(cid:173)
`glass windows were more than windows alone, and more indeed than
`a form of des-e,ration, no matter how beautiful. They were literally
`sermons in g1ass, sermons in color for an illiterate age.
`
`THE SECOND GOLDEN AGE- VENICE
`Glass continued to be made by the Saracens, but after the Crusades
`the center of glass manufacture gradually shifted to Venice and
`remained there for at least four centuries. The industry was soon
`operating on an amazingly large scale. In 1279 an elaborate guild
`system was set up, and in 1291 the industry was moved to the island
`of Murano, the better to protect its jealously guarded secrets. The
`emigration of workmen and even the exportation of scrap glass -
`cullet - were prohibited under penalty of death. On Murano the
`glasshouses are said to have extended for an unbroken mile with
`thousands of workmen toiling to make windows for churches, vast
`quantities of beads, bottles, and ornamental glassware. The Venetians
`produced mirrors which could be duplicated nowhere else. In the
`
`O-I Glass, Inc.
`Exhibit 1008
`Page 015
`
`

`

`THE GLASS OF YEARS GONE BY
`
`11
`
`inventory of the effects of the French minister Colbert was listed a
`Venetian mirror, 45 in. by 26 in., in a silver frame, valued at 8016
`livres. By contrast, a painting by Raphael, also listed among the effects,
`was valued at 3000 livres.
`The glass which we usually think of as being Venetian - "the
`graceful vessels of endless variety of form, thin and diaphanous, in
`which the skill of the glass blower attains its most complete expres-
`
`FIGURE 1.5. Lace glass goblet, covered jar, shallow bowl, vase, and cup. Venetian,
`Sixteenth Century. (Courtesy, Toledo Museum of Art)
`
`sion" - as Edward Dillon so aptly described this ware, reached its
`culmination in the Sixteenth Century. At that time the Venetians
`perfected their "Cristallo" glass, the first absolutely colorless, trans(cid:173)
`parent glass capable of being blown to extreme thinness and worked
`into almost any conceivable form. In this glass we have a product
`whose artistic merit depends directly upon the skill of the glass blower
`rather than upon the decorator or engraver. Nevertheless, the Vene(cid:173)
`tians did often decorate their glass with gilt or enamel, and they pro(cid:173)
`duced crackled glass, marbled opaque glass, and glass engraved by
`the diamond. Figures 1.5 and 1.6 illustrate the variety of treatments
`used by the Venetians. This period of Venetian ascendency was cer(cid:173)
`tainly the second golden age of glass, but with the eventual escape
`of its secrets and the increased manufacture of glass elsewhere, the
`Venetian glass industry gradually declined.
`Glass manufacture persisted in many places during the Dark Ages
`just prior to the exquisite work of the Venetians. During the Four(cid:173)
`teenth and Fifteenth Centuries, particularly, the Syrians turned their
`
`O-I Glass, Inc.
`Exhibit 1008
`Page 016
`
`

`

`12
`
`GLASS: THE MIRACLE MAKER
`
`b
`a
`C
`(a) and (c) Wineglasses. (b) Diamond engraved plate with the Orsini
`FIGURE 1.6.
`and Medici arms. Venetian, Sixteenth-Seventeenth Century. (Courtesy, Metropolitan
`Museum, New York)
`
`FIGURE 1.7. Enameled glass mosque lamp. Syrian, Thirteenth Century. (Courtesy ,
`Metropolitan Museum, New York)
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`O-I Glass, Inc.
`Exhibit 1008
`Page 017
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`THE GLASS OF YEARS GONE BY
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`attention to the glorification of the mosques. Their glass itself was
`crude and had no artistic merit until it came into the hands of the
`decorator. And then it became the most magnificent enameled glass
`the world is ever likely to see - vases, basins, and mosque lamps of
`surpassing beauty. The enamels, translucent or transparent, were fused
`to the surface of the glass and became an integral part of it. An
`enameled mosque lamp is shown in Figure 1. 7. At about this same
`time, the Bohemians were producing a hard glass which was par(cid:173)
`ticularly well adapted to cutting, engraving, and etching, decorative
`methods which were soon widely used. By the end of the Sixteenth
`Century glass manufacture was flourishing in all parts of Europe .
`•
`
`THE MODERN PERIOD
`
`THE CENTURIES JUST PAST
`Morey considers the great work by Neri, L' Arte Vetraria,7 as the
`beginnit?-g of the scientific approach in glass technology. He says,8
`"While science in its modern sense was still far in the future, and
`while the scientific treatment of the problems of glass technology is
`largely the accomplishment of this generation, nevertheless the basis
`was laid in the assembly of facts in this monumental volume." Morey
`calls it a classic of chemical technology and a treasure house of glass
`history. The book was first published in Florence, Italy, in 1612,
`and was later reprinted and annotated by Merrett and Kunckel.
`During the eighty years following the appearance of ~ work
`four developments occurred which had a tremendous impact upon the
`glass industry. In the first two decades of the Seventeenth Century
`the art of cutting glass was brought to a considerable degree of per(cid:173)
`fection by Caspar Lehman and his pupil, Schwanhardt. Since that
`time this has ecome a widely used method of_ glass decoration. In
`1615, owing to the demands of the English navy, the glassmakers were
`forbidden to use wood as fuel. Thomas Percivall's development of
`coal furnaces revolutionized glass manufacture, changing it from a
`rural to an urban industry. Another English invention was George
`Ravenscroft's development of flint glass in 1675. Lead oxide was the
`ingredient which gave this glass its distinctive characteristics of great
`brilliancy and comparative "softness" which made it easy to form and
`decorate. The use of lead oxide was not entirely new - it was used as
`a flux by the Romans and Venetians. The name "flint glass" comes, in
`fact, from the use of a very pure silica, in the form of flint, by these
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`O-I Glass, Inc.
`Exhibit 1008
`Page 018
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`14
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`GLASS: THE MIRACLE MAKER
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`early glassmakers. The English, however, used a relatively large pro(cid:173)
`portion of lead oxide and made other desirable changes in the glass
`composition. The t e rm~ ' is now used in two ways: ( 1) to
`refer to any clear glass; or (2) to refer to an optical glass having a
`higher refractive index and greater dispersive power than certain
`other optical glasses, the "crowns." The optical flint glasses contain
`lead oxide and there is seldom any confusion in terminology. Finally,
`in 1688 the process of casting glass was invented by Louis Lucas, and
`this gave the French supremacy in the manufacture of large polished
`plate glasses for many years.
`The progress of glass technology was greatly accelerated by the
`discovery in 1790 of a method for producing optical glass. This is the
`type of glass now used for the lenses of microscopes and telescopes,
`for the prisms of spectroscopes and binoculars, and for many other
`purposes. It differs from ordinary glass in two significant respects.
`First, it must be chemically l,omogeneous and must be substantially
`free from physical imperfections such as "stones" or bubbles. Second,
`it must also be available in a variety of compositions having a wide
`range of refractive index and dispersion. This invention and much of
`its subsequent development must be credited to Pierre-Louis Guinand
`and his descendants. They found that chemical homogeneity could be
`obtained by stirring the molten glass, and they discovered means of
`thoroughly annealing the resulting product.
`Guinand's invention may be considered the forerunner of the re(cid:173)
`search which was done in later years, usually on optical glasses, in an
`effort to modify glass properties by systematic variation in composi(cid:173)
`tion. Although much work was done by Faraday and Harcourt, more
`than one hundred years ago, unquestionably the outstanding study
`of this type was that carried out by 0. Schott in an effort to develop
`glasses having the optical properties desired by Professor Abbe.
`Except for a limited number of coloring agents, the compounds of
`only 5 or 6 elements were in general use prior to 1880. Only two types
`of optical glass were known: crown, a lime glass, and flint, a lead oxide
`glass. There were many shortcomings in lenses which simple com(cid:173)
`binations of these two types of glass could not overcome. Through
`the work of Schott and his collaborators about 25 new elements or
`their compounds became available to the glass industry. He discovered
`that the glasses compounded with these new materials possessed a wide
`range of optical properties, and this discovery made it possible to build
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`O-I Glass, Inc.
`Exhibit 1008
`Page 019
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`THE GLASS OF YEARS GONE BY
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`15
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`up optical systems free from the defects previously exhibited. Later,
`Schott extended his study to include glasses designed for other
`purposes. This work has had a profound effect upon our practical and
`theoretical knowledge concerning all kinds of glass. It is summarized
`in the book, Jena Glass, by H. Hovestadt (Macmillan, New York,
`1902).
`
`GLASS IN AMERICA
`The first manufacturing establishment in Ame:;rica was ,a glass
`factory! So.on after the arrival of the first permanent English' settlers
`at James Towne, Virginia, a glass plant was trected in a near-by
`forest, and in 1609 glass was included in the first export cargo from
`the new land. The near-by forest furnished an abundance of wood
`for fuel, and the wood was also a source of potash. Beads, bottles,
`and trinkets were manufactured for barter with the Indians. A second
`factory was built in 1621 but, like the first, survived only a few years.
`The first centralized manufacture in America was in the Dutch settle(cid:173)
`ment of Nieuw Amsterdam on Manhattan Island, ~ here glass was
`produced continuously from 164 5 to 17 67. Nevertheless, glass was a
`luxury to the colonists of the Seventeenth Century and in the more
`isolated regions many lived and died without ever seeing a single piece
`of glass. The subsequent history of American glass, until quite
`recently, revolves aroimd three famous names, Wistar, Stiegel, and the
`Boston and Sandwich Glass Company.
`In 173 9 Caspar Wistar established a successful glasshouse in Salem
`County, New Jersey. Most of the surviving authenticated pieces of
`this glass were blown "offhand," and some are very fine. Several other
`glasshouses also operated in southern New Jersey. The Wistar plant
`witnessed both the rise and the fall of the great glassworks founded
`in 17 65 at Manheim, Pennsylvania, by Henry William Stiegel. Some
`of the most beautiful blown glass ever made in America was made at
`Manheim, and this was probably the beginning of flint glass manu(cid:173)
`facture in this country. It is unfortunate that the depression preceding
`the Revolution and the personal extravagances of Stiegel led to
`financial failure. The Stiegel plant closed its doors in 1774, and Wis(cid:173)
`tarberg glass ceased to be made in 1781. Examples of the southern New
`Jersey and Stiegel glasses are shown in Figures 1.8 and 1.9. The third
`of the famous early American plants was that of the Boston and Sand(cid:173)
`wich Glass Company, founded in 1825 by Deming Jarves. The plant
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`O-I Glass, Inc.
`Exhibit 1008
`Page 020
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`16
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`GLASS: THE MIRACLE MAKER
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`prospered from the start, and soon the original furnace with 8 pots
`grew to 4 furnaces with 40 pots, capable of producing 100,000 lb.
`of glass per week. Jarves and his associates succeeded in obtaining
`several patents, one of which, issued in 182 7, covered a method of
`
`FIGURE 1.8. Pitchers and candlestick of southern New Jersey type. American,
`about 1800. (Courtesy, Metropolitan Museum, New York)
`
`pressing molten glass into iron molds. This allowed the production of
`relatively cheap pressed tumblers and gave grea_t impetus to the busi(cid:173)
`ness wh