POTs
`Co
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`Page 1 of 69
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`BMW v. Paice, IPR2020-00994
`BMWv. Paice, IPR2020-00994
`BMW1093
`W1093
`Page 1 of 69
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`

`a yeti
`
`‘
`
`.
`
`she ‘
`weg
`
`AUTOMOTIVE
`HANDBOOK
`
`i.
`
`BMW v. Paice, IPR2020-00994
`BMW v. Paice, IPR2020-00994
`BMW1093
`BMW1093
`Page 2 of 69
`Page 2 of 69
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`€
`

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`
`
`Imprint
`
`Published by:
`© Robert Bosch Gmbh, 1996
`Postfach 300220
`D-70442 Stuttgart
`Automotive Equipment Business Sector,
`Departmentfor Technical Information
`(KH/VDT).
`Management: Dipt.-Ing.(FH} Ulrich Adler.
`
`Editor in chief:
`Dip!.-Ing.(FH) Horst Bauer.
`
`Editors:
`Ing.{grad.) Arne Cypra,
`Dipl.-Ing. (FH) Anton Beer,
`Dipl.-Ing. Hans Bauer.
`
`Production management:
`Joachim Kaiser.
`
`Layout:
`Dipl.-Ing.(FH) Ulrich Adler,
`Joachim Kaiser.
`
`Tragslation:
`Editor in chief:
`Peter Girling
`Translated by:
`Ingenieurbire fir Technische und
`Wissenschaftlicha Ubersetzungen
`Dr. W.-D. Haehl GmbH,Stuttgart
`Memberof tha ALPNET Services Group
`Wiliam D. Lyon
`
`Technical graphics:
`Bauer & Partner GmbH, Stuttgart.
`Design, front cover, front matter:
`Zweckwerbung, Kirchheim u.T., Germany
`Technische Publikation, Waiblingen
`
`Distribution, 4th Edition:
`SAE Society of Automotive Engineers
`400 Commonwealth Drive
`Warrendale, PA 15096-0001 U.S.A.
`ISBN 1-56091-918-3
`
`Reproduction, duplication and transtatlon
`of
`this publication,
`including excerpts
`therefrom,
`is only to ensue with our
`previous written consent and with parti-
`culars of source.
`!Jlustrations, descrip-
`tions, schematic diagrams and other data
`serve only for explanatory purposes and
`for presentation of the text, They cannot
`be used as the basis for design, installa-
`tion, and scope of delivery. We undertake
`no liability for conformity of the contents
`with national or local regulations.
`We reserve the right fo make changes.
`The brand names given in the contents
`serve only as examples and do not repre-
`sent the classification or preference for @
`particular manufacturer. Trade marks are
`not identified as such.
`Tha following companies kindly placed
`picture matter, diagrams and otherIntor-
`mative material at our disposal:
`Audi AG, Ingalstadt:
`Bayerische Motoren Werke AG, Munich;
`Behr GmbH & Co, Stuttgart;
`Brose Fahrzeugteila GmbH & Co. KG,
`Coburg;
`Continental AG, Hannover;
`Eberspacher KG, E@lingen;
`Filtenverk Mann und Hummel,
`Ludwigsburg;
`Ford-Werke AG, Cologne;
`Aktlengeselischaft Kihnile, Kopp und
`Kausch, Frankental;
`Mannesmann Kienzle GmbH,
`Villingen-Schwenningen;
`Mercedes-Benz AG, Stuttgart;
`Pierburg GmbH, Neuss;
`RWE Energia AG, Essen;
`Volkswagen AG, Wolfsburg;
`Zahnradtabrik Friedrichshafen AG,
`Friadrichshafen.
`Source of Information for motor-vehicle
`specifications: Automobil Revue Katalog
`1995.
`
`Printed In Germany.
`Imprimé en Allamagne.
`
`4th Edition, October 1996.
`
`Editorial closing: 31.08.1996
`
`Kurt K. Wendt Library’
`diniversity of Wisconsin-Madisorf
`215 N. Randall Avenue
`Madison, WI_53706-1688
`
`BMW v. Paice, IPR2020-00994
`BMW v. Paice, IPR2020-00994
`BMW1093
`BMW1093
`Page 3 of 69
`Page 3 of 69
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`

`

`
`
`4 Contents
`
`Contents
`
`Physics, basics
`Quantities and units
`Conversion tables
`Vibration and oscillatian
`Mechanics
`Strength of matarials
`Acoustics
`Heat
`Electrical engineering
`Electronics
`Sensoren
`Actuators
`Electric machines
`Technical optics
`Mathematics, methods
`Mathematics
`Quality
`Engineeringstatistics,
`measuring techniques
`Refiability
`Data processing in motor vehicles
`Control engineering
`Materials
`Chemical elements
`Terminology and parameters
`Material groups
`Material properties
`Lubricants
`Fuels
`Chemicals
`Corrosion and corrosion protection
`Heat treatment
`Hardness
`
`Maschine elements
`“Tolerances
`Sliding androlling bearings
`Spring calculations
`Gears and tooth systemsg
`Belt drives
`Threaded fasteners
`
`Joining and bonding techniques
`Welding
`Soldering
`Adhesives
`Riveting
`Pressurized clinching
`Punchriveting
`Sheet-metal processing
`
`Tribology, wear
`
`271
`
`302
`
`311
`313
`314
`315
`316
`317
`
`318
`
`321
`
`;
`Motor-vehicle dynamics
`Road-going vehicle requirements
`Fuel requirements
`Dynamics of linear motion
`Dynamics of lateral motion
`Evaluating operating behavior
`(as per ISO)
`Special operating dynamics
`for commercial vehicles
`Agricuttural-tractor requirements
`Environmental stresses
`
`326
`327
`330
`342°
`
`346
`
`351
`354
`356
`
`361
`364
`368
`373
`374
`378
`382
`398
`398
`
`internal-combustlon (1C) engines
`Operating concepts and classification 358
`359
`Thermodynamic cycles
`Reciprocating-piston engines
`with internal combustion
`The spark-ignition (Otto) angina
`The diesel angine
`Hybrid processes
`Gas exchange
`SupercharglngAurbocharging
`Power transfer
`Cooling
`Lubrication
`Empirical values
`and data for calculations
`Reciprocating-pision engine with
`extemal combustion (Stirling engine)
`The Wankel rotary engine
`Gas turbines
`
`400
`412
`
`41
`416
`
`°
`
`Engine coollng
`Air and water cooling
`Charge-alr coollng/intercooling
`Oi! cooling
`Intake alr, exhaust systems
`Air filters
`Turbochargers and superchargers
`Exhaust systems
`Engine managementfor spark-
`ignition (SI} engines
`Control parameters and operation
`
`418
`420
`421
`
`422
`424
`
`434
`
`436
`
`Ignition
`Basics
`Components
`Ignition coils
`Spark plugs
`ignition systems
`445
`Conventionalcoil ignition (CI)
`448
`Tranststorized ignition (TT)
`Capacitor-discharge Ignition (CDI} 450
`Electronic Ignition (ESA and DLI)
`451
`454
`Knock control
`
`439
`440
`
`BMW v. Paice, IPR2020-00994
`BMW v. Paice, IPR2020-00994
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`
`
`Fuel supply
`Electric fuel pumps
`
`Fuel management
`
`456
`
`458
`
`459
`Carburetors
`Single-poirt fuel-injection systems (TBI452
`Mono-Jetronic
`462
`Multipoint fuet-injectlon systems
`464
`K-Jatronic
`464
`KE-Jetronic
`466
`LJetronic
`468
`LH-Jetronic
`» 474
`
`479
`480
`483
`483
`484
`
`Other engine-control functlons
`473
`idla-spead control
`474
`Electronic throttle control (ETC)
`474
`Electronic boost-pressura control
`476
`Variable-geometry intake manifold
`Evaporative-emissions control system 477
`Exhaust-gas recirculation (EGR)
`477
`Integrated engine-management
`system, Motronic
`Detection and processing of
`measured variables
`Motronic system
`System configuration
`Racing applications
`Engine test technology
`Exhaust emissions from spark-
`ignition (St) engines
`Combustion products
`Emissions control
`Lambda closed-loop controt
`Testing exhaust and evaporative
`494
`emissions
`496
`Test cycles and emissionlimits
`500
`Exhaust-gas analyzers
`Internal-combustion (IC) engines for
`alternative fuels
`501
`LPG systems
`504
`Alcohol operation
`505
`Hydrogen operation
`Engine management {diesel engines)
`Fuet metering
`506
`Fuel-injection pumps, in-line
`508
`Fuel-Infection pumps, control sleave 514
`Fuel-injaction pumps, distributor type 515
`Fuel-Injaction pumps,
`distributor-type, solenoid-controlied 518
`Time-controlled single-pump systems 519
`Gommon-rall systam
`524
`Injactlon-pump test benches
`523
`Nozzles and nozzle holders
`. 524
`
`486
`487
`490
`
`Contents
`
`5
`
`Exhaust emissions (diesel engines}
`Emissions control
`Emissions testing
`Test cycles and exhaust-emission
`533
`limits In Europe
`Exhaust-emissions testing equipment 536
`Auxillary starting devices (diesel engines)
`Sheathed-element glow plugs
`538
`Glow control unit
`539
`
`531
`
`Starting systems
`Starters
`Starter protection devices
`Alternative drive systems
`Electric drives
`Hybrid drives
`Drivetrain
`Basics
`Clutches and couplings
`Transmissions and gearboxes
`Final-driva units
`Differentials
`All-wheel drive (AWD)
`Traction control (ASA)
`Chassis systems
`Suspension
`Suspensionlinkage
`Wheels
`Tires
`Steering
`
`Braking systems
`Definitions, principles
`Legal raguiations
`Design and components of a
`braking system
`Braking-system design
`Braking-force apportioning
`Braking systems for passenger cars
`andlight utlllty vehicles
`Contra! devices
`Wheel brakes
`Braking-force distribution
`Antilock braking systems (ABS)
`for passenger cars
`Braking systems
`for commercial vehicles
`System and configuration
`Braking-force metering
`Wheel brakes
`Parking-braka systems
`Retarder braking systems
`Components for compressed-
`air brakes
`
`541
`544
`
`545
`551
`
`554
`556
`559
`569
`S71
`573
`574
`
`580
`$88
`§92
`596
`606
`
`612
`616
`
`620
`621
`622
`
`624
`624
`625
`626
`
`627
`
`640
`640
`641
`644
`648
`648
`
`653
`
`BMW v. Paice, IPR2020-00994
`BMWv. Paice, IPR2020-00994
`BMW1093
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`
`
`6 Contents
`
`659
`
`663
`666
`
`668
`669
`670
`676
`
`694
`
`737
`739
`
`.
`
`740
`743
`746
`748
`750
`752
`
`762
`763
`764
`766
`769
`770
`
`678
`679
`680
`684
`635
`
`Air conditioners
`.
`Antilock braking systems (ABS)
`Auxiliary heater installations
`for commercial vehicles
`Communications and Information
`Seideyyeti(ELE)
`systems
`Automotive sound systems
`Brake test stands
`Parking systems
`Vehicle Dynamics Control (VDC)
`Trip recorders
`Task
`Navigation systems
`Vehicle handting
`Mobile radio
`Control system
`Board information Terminal (BIT)
`System realization
`Satety systems
`Road-vehicte systematics
`753
`Seatbelt-tightener systems
`Overview
`753
`Front airbag systems
`Classification
`756
`ida airbag systerns
`757
`Rollover protection system
`Vehiciebodies,passenger car
`Comfort and convenience systems
`Body structure
`Power windows
`758
`Body materials
`Power sunrool
`759
`Body surface,
`Sealand steering-column adjustment 760
`686
`body finishing components
`Central locking system
`761
`688
`Safety
`Automotive hydraulics
`692
`Calculations
`Basics
`Vehicle bodies, commercial vehicles
`Gear pumps and motors
`Commercial vehicles,
`Piston pumps and motors
`delivery trucks and vans
`Valves
`Medium and heavy-duty trucks
`Cylinders
`695
`and tractor vehicles
`‘Tractor hydaulics
`696
`Buses
`Hydraulic accumulators,
`698
`Passive safety
`Noise reduction in commercial vehicles 699—auxiliary drivas 773
`
`«a
`Hydrostatic fan drives
`774
`Lighting
`es
`Legal regulations
`700
`Hydrostatic drives
`776
`Main headlamps
`701
`Automotive pneumatics
`Headlamp range adjustment
`714
`Door operation (buses)
`77a
`Fog lamps
`715
`Radiator louvers
`779
`Auxiliary driving lamps,lights andlamps716—Electrical system and power
`Visual signalling devices 722~—ssupply
`
`
`
`Headlamp aiming devices 723=Symbols 780
`Bulbs
`724
`~—Circult diagrams
`784
`Conductor-size calculations
`792
`ignaling devices and alarm sya Electrical power supplyIn the vehicle 794
`I
`dav
`Si
`Acoustic signaling devices
`Theft-
`Controller Area Network (CAN)
`B00
`eft-deterrent systems
`727
`Starter batteries
`803
`Windshield and headlamp cleaning
`Battery chargers
`807
`
`
`Windshield-wiper systems 730=Alternators 808
`Rear-window wiper systems
`731
`Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) 816
`Headlamp cleaning systems
`ie
`and Interference suppression
`Washing systems
`733
`Passenger car specifications
`Windshield and window glass
`734
`Roadtraffic legislation
`Heating, ventilation,
`Miscellaneous
`and alr-conditioning (HVAC)
`Alphabets and numbers
`Heating systems using engine heat 736
`Index of headings
`
`tive motors
`
`822
`852
`862
`863
`
`BMW v. Paice, IPR2020-00994
`BMW v. Paice, IPR2020-00994
`BMW1093
`BMW1093
`Page 6 of 69
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`

`

`Authors 7
`
`Materiats
`Dr.rar.nat. J. Ultmann: Dr.rer.nat.
`W. Draxler; Dr.-Ing. D. Wicke; Dip!.-lng.
`D. Weildemann, Mercedes-Benz AG,
`Sindelfingen; Dr.rer.nat. H.-J. Spranger;
`Drrer.nat. H. P. Koch; Dipl.-ing. R. Mayer;
`Dipl.-Ing. G. Lindemann; Dr.rer.nat.
`K. Miller; Dipl.-Ing. H. Schneider;
`Dr.rer.nat. K. Kinberger, BASF, Minster;
`Dieter Herbs!, BASF, Munster; Dr.rer.nat.
`G. Dornhdier; Dr.rer.nat. B. Blaich;
`Dr.phil.nat. B. Peters
`Hardness, heat treatment
`Dr.-Ing. D. Liedtke
`Corrosion
`Dr.rer.nat. M. SchGnborn
`
`’
`
`a A
`
`uthors of the 4th Edition 1)
`
`Quantities, units
`Dipl.-Ing. G. Briiggen
`Dipl.-Ing. W. Bazien t
`Vibration and oscillation
`Dipl.-Ing. J. Bohrer
`Mechanics
`Dipl-ing. G. Briiggen
`Strength of materlats
`Dr.-Ing. M. Bacher-Hochst
`Acoustics
`Drrer.nat. W. Kelper
`Heat
`Dipl.-Ing. W. Daniel
`
`Electrical engineering
`Drrer.nat. W. Dravler,
`DipL-ing. B. Warner
`Electronics
`Drrer.nat. G. Matthal; Dr.rer.nat.
`P. Egelhaaf; Drrernat U. Goebel;
`Drrer.nat. A. Schmid; Dz.-Ing. F. Piwonka:
`Dr.-Ing. J. Marek; Dipl.-ing. F. Raichle
`Sensors
`Dr.-Ing. E. Zabler
`Actuators
`Dr.-Ing. R. Helnz
`Electric machines
`Dr.-Ing. K. Harms
`Technical optics
`Dr.-Ing. F. Prinzhausen;
`Drrernat, H. Sautter
`
`Mathematics
`“DipL-Ing. G, Broggen
`Quality
`Dipi-ing. M. Graf
`Engineering statlstics/
`measuring techniques
`Dipl.-Math. H.-P. Bartenschlager
`Rellabllity
`Drrennat. E. Dilger;
`Dr.rez,nat. H. Weller
`Data processing In motor vehicles
`Drrer.nat. 8. Dais
`Control engineering
`Dipl.-Ing. R. Karrelmeyer
`
`.
`
`
`
`1) Unless otherwise stated, tha above are all
`employees of the Robart Bosch GmbH
`
`Tolerances
`Ing. (grad.} Jirgen Piander
`Sliding and rolling bearings
`Dr.-Ing. A. Heinz
`Spring calculations
`Dip!.-Ing. O. Krickau
`Gears and tooth systems
`Dipl.-Ing. P.-!. Pladek
`Belt drives
`C. Hansen
`Threaded fasteners
`Dipl.-Ing. O. Krickau;
`Dipl.-Ing. M. N&écker
`
`-
`
`Joining and bonding techniques
`Dr.-Ing. M. Witt, Volkswagen AG,
`Wolfsburg
`
`Sheet-metal processing
`Ing. W. Gertler, Volkswagen AG,
`Wolfsburg; Dr.-Ing. M. Wit, Volkswagen
`AG, Wolfsburg
`
`Tribology, wear
`Dipl.-Ing. H. Schorr
`
`NMotor-vehicle dynamics
`Dr.-Ing. H. Hlereth, Mercedes-Benz AG
`Stuttgart; Dipl.-Ing. E. Slegert,
`Mercedes-Benz AG, Stuttgart
`
`Road-golng vehicle requirements
`Dip!.-Ing. E. Siegert, Mercedes-Banz AG,
`Stuttgart, Prof. Dr.-Ing. habil. E.-C. v.
`Glasner, Mercedes-Benz AG, Stuttgart,
`Dipl.-Ing. H. GelBler, Mercedes-Benz AG,
`Stuttgart; Dr.-Ing, H. Steinkampf, Institut
`fir Betriebstechnik der FAL, Braunschweig
`
`BMW v. Paice, IPR2020-00994
`BMW v. Paice, IPR2020-00994
`BMW1093
`BMW1093
`Page 7 of 69
`Page 7 of 69
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`

`

`
`
`8 authors
`
`Environmental stresses
`Dipl.-Ing. G. Adalbert
`
`°
`
`Internal-combustion (IC) engines
`Dr.-Ing. H. Hlereth, Mercedes-Benz AG,
`Stuttgart
`
`Englne cooling
`Dipl.-Ing. S. Jenz, Behr GmbH & Co,
`Stuttgart; Dipl.-Ing. H. Martin, Behr
`GmbH & Co,Stuttgart
`
`Filters
`Dr.-Ing. O, Part, Filterwerk Mann und
`Hummel, Ludwigsburg
`
`Turbochargers and superchargers
`Dipl.-Ing. A. Férster, Aktlengesellschaft
`KGhnte, Kopp und Kausch, Frankental
`
`Exhaust systems
`Dipl.-Ing. W. Steinle, Eberspacher KG,
`Eflingan
`
`Eng!ine management tor spark-Ignition
`(5!) engines
`Drrer.nat. H. Sefwarz; Dipl.-Ing.
`G. Felger; Dipl.-Ing. M. Lembke; Dr.rer.nat
`W. Huber: Ing. (grad.) L. Seebald:
`Dipl.-Ing. (FH) U. Steinbrenner; Dr.-Ing.
`W.Richter, Dip!.-ing. A. Gerhard
`Carburetors
`Dr.-Ing. D. Grofmann, Plerburg GmbH,
`Neuss
`Gasoline fuel-injection systems
`DipL-ing. G. Felger; Dipl.-Ing. M. Lembke;
`Ing. (grad.} L. Seebaid; Dipl.-Ing. H. Delchsel
`Ignition
`Dipl.-Ing. R. Schleupen;Dipl.-lng. D. Betz;
`Dr.-Ing, A. Niegal
`Integrated engine-management
`systems, Motronic
`Dipl.-Ing. (FH} U. Steinbrenner; Dipl.-Ing.
`©. Gléckler; Dipl.-lag. M. Mazger; Dr.-Ing.
`N. Benninger
`Exhaust emissions from spark-[gnition
`(SI) engines
`Dipl.-tng. Q. Gléckter; Dring. G. Konig;
`Dipt.- Ing, E. Schnaibei
`Spark-Ignition ($1) engines
`for alternative fuela
`J, van der Weide, TNO Road-Vehicles
`ResearchInstitute, Delft, Niederlande;
`Ing. (grad.} L. Seebald;
`Dipl.-Ing. E. Schnaibel
`
`Engine management (diesel engines)
`Dr.-Ing. W. Polach; Dipl.-Ing. K. Hummel;
`Dipl.-Ing. U. Flaig; Dr.-Ing. B. Bonse;
`Dr.-Ing. techn. A. Eqger; Dipl.-Ing.
`W.Albrecht: Ing. (grad.) J. Warga
`Auxillary starting devices
`Dipl.-Ing. (FH) W. Teschner;
`Dr.rer.nat. H.-P, Bauer
`Exhaust emissions,diese! engines
`Dr.-Ing. W. Polach
`
`4
`
`Starting systems
`Dr.-Ing. T. Helter
`
`Electric drives
`Dr.-Ing. B. Sporckmann, RWE Energie AG,
`Essen; Dipl.-Ing. E. Zander,
`RWE Energia AG, Essen
`Hybrid drives
`Dr.-Ing. C, Bader, Mercedes-Benz AG,
`Stuttgart
`
`Drivetrain
`Dipl.-tng. M. Kirschner, Bayerische
`Motoren Werke AG, Manchen;
`Dipl.-Ing. W. Kréger, Bayerische Motoren «
`Werke AG, Munchen; Dipl.-Ing. P. Kopf,
`Zahnradfabrik Friedrichshafen AG;
`Dx.rer.nat. M. Schwab, Zahnradfabrik
`Friedrichshafen AG; Dr.-Ing. G. Schmidt;
`Dr.-Ing. H. Schramm
`
`Steerlng
`Ing. {grad.) D. Elser, Zahnradfabrik
`Friedrichshafen AG, Schw4bisch Gmiind;
`Dipl.-Ing. (FH) W. Rieger, Zahnradfabrik
`Friedrichshafen AG, Schwabisch Gmtnd
`
`Suspension, suspension linkage
`Dipl.-Ing. P. Dick, Bayerische Motoren
`Werke AG, Minchen; Dipl.-Ing.
`A. Mrotzak, Bayerische Motoren Werke
`AG, Manchen; Dipl.-Ing. J. Wimberger,
`Bayerische Motoren Werke AG, MGnchen
`
`‘
`
`Wheels
`Dipl.-Ing. A. Braun, Mercedes-Benz AG,
`Stuttgart; Prof. Dr.-Ing. habll.
`E.-C, v. Glasner, Mercedes-Benz AG,
`Stuttgart
`
`Tires
`Dipt.-Ing. B. Mel, Continental AG,
`Hannover; Prof. Dr.-ing. habll, £.-C. v.
`Glasner, Mercedes-Benz AG, Stuttgart
`
`BMW v. Paice, IPR2020-00994
`BMW v. Paice, IPR2020-00994
`BMW1093
`BMW1093
`Page 8 of 69
`Page 8 of 69
`
`

`

`Authors
`
`9
`
`Moblie radio
`Dr.-Ing. J. Wazeck
`
`Board Information Terminal (BIT)
`Drrer.nat. D. Elke
`
`Safety systems
`Dipl.-Ing. B. Mattes
`
`Comfort and convenience systems
`Dipl.-Ing. (FH) W. SpieB; Dr.-Ing. G, Hartz
`
`Automotive hydraulics
`Ing. (grad.} W. Dworak; Dipl.-Ing.
`K. Griese; Dipl.-Ing. D. Bertsch;
`Dipl.-Ing. W. Kétter; Dipl.-Ing. H. Lédige;
`Dipl.-Ing. M. Bing; Ing. (qrad.) H. Walter
`
`Automotive pneumatics
`Ing. (grad.) P. Berg
`
`Symbols, conductor-size calculations
`Dipl.-Ing. (FH) H. Bauer
`
`Power supply
`Dipl.-Ing. F Meyer
`
`Starter batteries, battery chargers
`Dr.-Ing. G. Richter;
`tng. (grad) T. Meyer-Staufenbiel
`
`Alternators
`Dr.-tng. K. G. Barger
`
`Controller Area Network (CAN)
`Dr.-Ing. K. H. Kafser
`
`Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC)
`Dr.-Ing. W. Ptatf
`
`Testing technology
`Dipt.-Ing. W. Hummel
`
`Passenger-car specifications
`R. Helfer
`
`.
`Road trattic legislation
`Dipt.-ing, K. Haffner, Technischer Uber-
`wachungs-Verein Sldwest, Filderstadt
`
`Braking systems
`Dr.rez.nat. J. Brduninger; Prof. Dr.-tng.
`habil. E-C. v. Glasner, Mercedes-Benz
`AG, Stuttgart; Dipl.-Ing. W. Kruse,
`Mercedes-Benz AG,Stuttgart: Dr.-Ing.
`G. Schmidt; Dipl.-Ing. W. Brohmann;
`Dipi.-ing. W. Stumpe: Dr.-Ing, H. Schramm
`
`Vehicle Dynamics Control (VDC)
`Dr.-Ing. A. van Zanten; Dipl.-Ing, G. Pfaff;
`Dr. R. Erhardt
`
`Road-vehicle systematics
`Dipl.-Ing. D. Weidemann, Mercedes-Benz
`AG, Sindelfingen
`
`Vehicle bodies, passenger car
`Dipl.-Ing. D. Weidernann, Mercedes-Benz
`AG, Sindelfingen
`
`Vehicle bodies, commercial vehicle
`Dipl.-Ing. H. GeiBler, Mercedes-Benz AG,
`Stuttgart
`
`Lighting
`Dr.phil.nat. R. Neumann:
`Dipl.-Ing. B. Wornar
`
`Signaling devices and alarm systems
`ing. (grad.} W. Hofer;
`Dipl.-Ing. M. Thirsam
`
`Windshield and headlampcteanIng
`Dr.-Ing. J.-G. Dietrich
`
`Heating, ventilation,
`and alr-conditloning (HVAC}
`Dr.-Ing. K. Molt, Behr GmbH & Co,
`Stuitgart; Dipl.-ing. G. Schweizer,
`Behr GmbH & Co, Stuttgart
`
`Automotive sound systems
`Dr, J. Siedler; V. Lauke, Blaupunkt-Werke,
`Hildeshelm
`
`Parking systems
`Ing. {grad.) D. Meyer
`
`Trip recorders
`Mannesmann Kienzle GmbH,
`PR-Abteilung, Villingen-Schwenningen
`
`Navigation systems
`Dipl.-Ing. E. P, Neukirchner
`
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`

`358
`
`_internal-combustion engines
`
`eens oo
`
`
`
`Internal-combustion
`.
`engines
`.
`Operating concepts and
`classifications
`
`+
`
`Intemmal combustion
`
`Combustion gas & working medium
`
`medium
`
`
`
`Phase change In working
`medium
`
`Type of ignition
`
`Cyclic combustlon
`Auto-
`
`Continuous combustion
`
`
`
`The fuels « largely hydrocarbons -
`quire oxygenin orderto burn;the required
`&
`
`oxygen is usually supplied as a-const
`tuentof the intake air.
`R
`5
`If fuel combustion occurs in the cylinds
`
`itself, the process is called internal com §
`
`§
`bustion. Hare the combustion gas iisel’s
`j
`used as the working medium.
`
`The internal-combustion (IC) engine is
`if combustion takes place outside the
`
`the most
`frequently employed power
`cylinder, the process Is called extemd +
`
`source for motor vehicles. Internal-com-
`combustion.
`
`bustion engines generate power by con-
`Continous mechanical workis possible
`varting chemical energy boundin the fuel
`only in a cyclic process (piston engine) o
`
`into heat, and the heat thus produced into
`—_a_ continous process (gas turbine)of heet
`mechanical work.
`absorption,
`expansion {production d
`The conversion of chemical energy into
`work) and return of the working-medum |
`
`heat is accomplished through combus-__toits initial condition (combustion cycle),
`tion, while the subsequent conversion of
`if the working medium is altered asi
`
`this thermal energy into mechanical work
`absorbs heat, €.g., when a@ portion of is
`Is performed by allowing the heat energy
`constituents serve as an oxidanit,restore
`
`io increase the pressure within a medium_tion ofIts initial condition is possible ony
`which then performs workas It expands.
`through replacement.
`
`Liquids, which supply an Increase in
`This Is called an open cycle, and is
`
`working pressure via a change of phase
`characterized by cyclic gas exchang
`(vaporization), or gases, whose working
`(discharge of the combustion gases a
`
`
`pressure can be increased through com-
`induction of the frash charge).
`Intemd
`
`pression, are used as working media.
`combustion therefore always requires a
`open cycle.
`
`
`Table 1. Classification of the internal-combustion engine -
`
`Tipe oem
`
`Closed process
`External combustion
`
` Combustion gas + working
`
`
`
` Type of combustion
`
`
`Engine &
`machine
`‘
`;
`
`
`
`
`. Diesel|Hybridenclosing a Stirilng
`working chamber
`Turbine &
`
`gas turbine
`
`Type of mixture
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`Typeofmachine
`
`Heterogenous
`
`Hot steam
`
`
`Homo-
`Heterogenous
`
`
`
`genous
` {in a continuous flame}
`fin the combustion chamber}
`
`
`
`
`
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`

`*-
`
`internal-combustion engines 359
`
`Cycles
`
`The p-V diagram
`A basic precondition for continuous con-
`version of thermal energy Into kinetic
`energy is a modification In tha condition of
`the worklng Medium:It is also desirable
`that as much of the working medium as
`Possible be retunedtoits initial condition.
`For technical applications the focus can
`rest on changes in pressura and the cor-
`fesponding volumetric variations which
`can be plotted on a Pressure vs. volume
`work diagram, orp-V diagram for short.
`As the figura shows, the addition of heat
`and the changein condition of the working
`medium that accompany the progress of
`the process In the 1-22 phase must
`consume less energy than that required for
`the 21 phase. Once this condition fs
`Satisfied the result
`fs an area cotres-
`ponding to the process work potentlal:
`L£=9§ Vap.
`
`|
`
`In-exteral combustion, the actual work-
`ing medium remains chemically un-
`changed, and can thus be returned to its
`ital
`condition by suitable Measures
`(cooting, condensation). This enables the
`tsa of a closed process.
`In addition to the main Process char-
`actedstics (Open/closad) and the type of
`combustion (cyclic/continuous), tha vari-
`ous combustion processes for Internal-
`combustion engines can also be defined
`according to their mixture-formation and
`ignition arrangements.
`in external mixture formation, the mix-
`le is formed outside the combustion
`chamber. In this type of mixture formation
`alamely homogenous alr-fuel mixture is
`pesent when combustion fs initiated, soit
`§ also referred to as homogenous mix-
`tre formation.
`ln tema! mixture formation the fuel is
`oduced directly tnto the combustion
`chamber. The later intemal combustion
`occurs, the mare heterogeneous the air-
`hel mixture will be at the tims combustion
`é hiitiated. internal mixture tormatlon is
`therefore also called heterogeneous mix-
`le formation, External Ignition designs
`ily on an electric Spark or a glow Plug to
`iliate combustion.
`nautolgnition, the mixture Is Ignited as
`twams to or beyondits ignition tempera-
`Wwe during compression,
`
`The 7-S diagram
`The temperature entropy, or 7-5 diagram,
`Is used to provide a elmilar graphic repre-
`sentation of the bidirectional thermal en-
`€rgy transfers in this cyclic process.
`In the T-S diagram heat quantities can be
`represented as areas in the Samé manner
`that work is represented &S an area in the
`p-V diagram. With known Specific wark-
`ing-medium heats, tha 15 diagram can
`Alemodynamic c‘¥cle Mustratedusing the
`
`}Fdagnem
`
`T-§ orH-S diagram
`
`bé transformed into the #-5 dlagram, A thermodynamic cycle Hilustrated using the
`
`mu
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`

`

`360 Internal-combustion engines
`
`known as the enthalpy-entropy diagram,
`in accordance with the equation
`dH = Cp . ar.
`The cycle illustrated in the p-V diagram
`on page 359 shews the amount of heat
`added along ”a”
`Qadd *¥ Ta ds
`and the amount of heat dissipated along
`hy”
`+
`
`Orson = J To as, where
`Qada - Qass = L = $ Vdp
`(Difference between the amount of heat
`supplied and the amount of heat dis-
`charged) which corresponds to the avail-
`able amount of mechanical work. The
`diagram also shows that a thermal effi-
`clency mn = (Gada - Qawe)/Onaa Can be de-
`fIned based on the equality of mechanical
`work and the difference between the heat
`quantities.It also lilustrates the theoratical
`cycle providing the maximum amount
`of technical work, as found in the area
`between two specified temperatures for
`the working medium.
`\
`
`cess efficiency between the defined
`temperature limits,
`it
`is the theoretical
`optimum for converting heatinto work
`ThihCamet * (Trax “ Trin)!Trex
`Internal-combustlon engines operate at-
`cording to other cycles, however, be
`cause isothermal compression, Le.,"a
`pressure Increase In the working medium
`without an Increase in temperature, and
`isothermal expansion are not technicaly
`feasible.
`today involves
`treatment
`Theoretical
`the following Ideal combustlon cycles:
`the constant-voluma cycle for ali piston
`engines with periodic combustion and
`generation of work, and
`the constant-pressure cycle for all turbine
`engines with continuous combustion and
`generation of work.
`Both cycles will be dealt with in more
`detail in the discussion of the correspon
`ing machines.
`
`The Carnot cycle
`This cycle, described in 1824 by Carmot,
`consists of
`two Isothermal’) and two
`isentropic?) changes in condition which
`ald the maximum area between Trax
`and Trin In the T-S dlagram. Because the
`
`1) Isothermal change in condition: temperature
`2} Isentropic change in condition: adiabatictrea
`doag not change.
`1s nelther added nordissipated) and frictiontess
`(reveralble).
`3} Isochoric changs in condition: volume does
`not change: see p 361.
`
`Carnot cycle represents maximum pro- The Carnot cycie In thep-¥ and T-5 diagrams
`
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`

`Internal-combustlon engines
`
`361
`
`Reciprocating-piston engineswith internal
`combustion
`
`Operation concept
`
`engine. Hera it will be noted that the
`Power generated by a reciprocating-
`piston Internal-combustion engine in-
`creases as rpm rises.
`
`Ideal combustion cycle for piston
`engines with internal combustion
`For
`reciprocating-piston engines with
`internal combustion, the ideal thermo-
`dynamic combustion process
`is
`the
`“constant-volume process"
`consisting
`af Isentrople compression,
`isochorics)
`heat supply,
`isentropic expansion and
`isachoric reversion of the ideal working
`gas toIts initial condition. This cycle is
`only possible if the following conditions
`are mat:
`
`- noheat or gas losses, no residual gas;
`— ideal gas with constant specific heats
`Cp, ey and
`X= plc, = 1.4;
`— infinitely rapid heat supply and dis-
`charge;
`
`All reciprocating-piston engines operate
`by compressing air or an air-fuel mixture
`inthe working cylinder prior to Igniting
`the mixture or injecting fuel Into the hot
`compressed air to Initiate combustion.
`The crankshaft assembly converts the
`work generatedin this processinto torque
`available at the end of the crankshaft.
`The p-V diagram reflects the actual
`power-generation process in the engine
`asa function of piston travel, [t shows the
`mean effective pressures p,, within the
`giinder during a completa working cycle.
`Easier to produce are other diagrams
`such as the pressure vs. time (p-1-) and
`ha pressure vs, crankshaft angle (p-a-)
`agrams. The surfaces defined In these
`wo diagrams do not directly indicate the
`amount of work generated, but they do
`povide a clear picture of essential data
`such asfiring point and peak combustion
`Hessure. The product of the mean effec-
`fhe pressure in the cylinder and the
`dsplacementyields the piston work, and
`fe number of working cycles perunit of
`fine indicates the piston power or the
`iMemal power
`(power
`index)
`for
`the
`
`Theenginepower eyele
`intep-V diagram, 2 in p-t andp-a diagram.
`*
`
`— no flow losses.
`
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`

`ideal constant-volume combustion cycte as shown In thep-V and T-S diagrams
`
`362
`
`Internal-combustion engines
`
`
`
`Wa
`
`the mechanical work equivalent of the
`supplied fuel:
`‘ Ye = W,/We where
`W,
`is the effective available work at the
`clutch, and
`Is the work equivalent of the supplied
`fuel.
`In order to better distinguish among ths
`different losses, a further distinction can
`be mada:
`
`Because the crankshaft assembly re-
`stricis expansion to finite levels,
`the
`4—5—1 surface in the diagrams Is not di-
`rectly available for use. Section 4-5'-1,
`lying above the atmospheric pressure
`line, becomes avaliable when an exhaust-
`gas turbine is connected downstream.
`Tha efficiency of the ideal constant-
`volume combustion cycle is calculated in
`ine same manneras all thermalefficien-
`Min
`= te = (Qnds— Gases)Qaaa
`thefuelconversion factor i7_ provides an
`index of combustion quality:
`where Qaag= Ge3 = m-ce,-(T,-T2) and
`Qass = Qa = m-C,-(Ts-T)
`7p = (Wa-Wao/Wa, whare
`We is the work equivalentof the supplied
`fual, and
`Wa. is the work equivalent of the un-
`bumed fuel.
`There are no operating conditions in
`which complete combustion takesplace,
`
`cies:
`
`Using the same x for compression and
`expansion:
`
`TT,
`ttn = 1Qaw/Qoss= 1—ztpl= 1-TTs
`if 7/72 = #* then” ~
`Nin = 1—e'—,
`where the compression ratio is defined as
`e = (Vo+¥,)/¥, with a displacementof V),
`and a compression volume of Vo.
`Rea! internal-combustlan engines do
`not operate accordingto ideal cycles, but
`rather with real gas, and are therefore
`sublect
`to fiuid,
`thermodynamic and
`mechanical losses.
`
`A portion of the supplied fuel does not
`burn (hydrocarbon constituents In the ex:
`haust gas), orfails to combust completely
`(CO In exhaust), Under certaln operating
`conditions it is even desirable to inhitt
`complete combustion by reducing the
`amountof air (with an alr-fuel ratio A <1)t
`enhance full-throttle performance or com-
`pensate for incomplete fuel vaporization
`in the warm-up phase.
`Efflclency sequence (DIN 1940)
`4 is often defined as “1” for smal
`
`Theoverallefficiency 17, includes the sum
`diesel engines at operating temperature
`of all losses, and can thus be defined as
`and for comparisions.
`the ratlo of effective mechanical work to
`
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`

`Interna!-combustion engines 363
`
`Table 2. Graphic representations and definitions of the individual and overall
`elficlences of the reciprocating-piston engine.
`Pressure v3
`volume diagram
`
`Designation
`
`Definition
`
`Efficlencies
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`Ideal gas, con-
`stant speelfic
`haats,Infinitely.
`rapid heat addl-
`tion and dissipa
`tlon, ate,
`
`th = 1- gi
`
`
`Theoretical
`or thermal
`
`
`
`
`éfficlency
`
`
`Theoretical
`
`
`comparative
`constant-
`
`
`volume cycie
`
`
`
`
`ao
`
`
` Ton
`Real high-pres-
`Wall haat lossas,
`
`¥
`sure working
`real gas, finitely
`
`
`
`cycle
`factorof the
`rapid heat addt-
`
`tlon and dissipa-
`
`high-pressure
`
`
`tion, variable
`
`Specific heats
`
`
`s
`
`
`
`Flow losses,
`é
`heating of the
`
`
`mixture OF alr,
`
`ate,
`
`u
`
`
`
`Losses due
`Feal engine
`10 friction,
`
`
`cooling,
`
`atodiiary units
`
`
`The efficiencyIndex37; is the ratio of indi-
`
`Wn is the work generated in the Ideal-
`cated high-pressure work to the calorific
`combustlon cycle.
`content of the supplied fuel 7, = W/W.
`"4m defines
`The
`The
`offici
`clo_f
`"q
`in-
`the
`relationship between mechanical
`cludes all interna! losses occurring inboth
`tosses — especially friction losses in the
`high-pressure and low-pressure proces-
`crankshaft assembly and Induction/ex-
`ses. These stem from:
`haust systems, from the off and water
`Real working gas, residual gas, walt
`Pumps, fue! pump, alternator, etc. - and
`heat
`losses, gas losses and pumping
`the work Index:
`sses. For this reason,7 is more appro-
`prately broken down into mgm for the
`high-pressure portion and uw for gas-
`exchanges processes. The efficiency of
`‘tycle
`factor
`therefore indicates how
`closely engine performance approaches
`tha theoretical ideal combustion cycle:
`
`Hm = W,/W, where
`
`W,
`
`Is the effective work available at the
`clutch and
`Wis the work Index.
`Tha efficiency chain therefore appears as
`follows:
`Fe = aM Hop Fou Ym
`
`(see Table 2),
`
`.
`
`Ng = Toxo: Mow = 1 /W, where
`
`W,
`
`Js the indicated work and
`
`'
`
`r.
`
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`

`364 Internal-combustion engines
`
`~-
`
`The spark-ignition (Otto)
`engine
`The spark-ignition engine (cr SI engine) is
`a piston engine with homogenous 6x-
`temal or internal mixture formation and
`extemally-generated ignition. In the com-
`pression stroka the homogenous. alr-
`fuel mixture 19 compres