Draft Technical Assessment Report:
`
`Midterm Evaluation of Light-Duty
`Vehicle Greenhouse Gas Emission
`Standards and Corporate Average Fuel
`Economy Standards for Model Years
`2022-2025
`
`
`PAICE 2015
`BMW v. Paice
`IPR2020-00994
`
`1
`
`

`

`Draft Technical Assessment Report:
`
`Midterm Evaluation of Light-Duty
`Vehicle Greenhouse Gas Emission
`Standards and Corporate Average Fuel
`Economy Standards for Model Years
`2022-2025
`
`Office of Transportation and Air Quality
`U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
`
`National Highway Traffic Safety Administration
`U.S. Department of Transportation
`
`And
`
`California Air Resources Board
`
`EPA-420-D-16-900
`July 2016
`
`2
`
`

`

`TABLE OF CONTENTS
`
`List of Acronyms……………………………………………………………………...…..……xix
`
`
`TOC and Abbreviations
`
`
`
`Purpose of this Report .................................................................................................. 1-1
`1.1
`1.2
`Building Blocks of the National Program .................................................................... 1-3
`1.2.1 Background on NHTSA’s CAFE Program .............................................................. 1-3
`1.2.2 Background on EPA’s GHG Program ..................................................................... 1-5
`1.2.3 Background on CARB’s GHG Program .................................................................. 1-5
`1.3
`Background on the National Program ......................................................................... 1-5
`1.4
`Agencies’ Commitment to the Midterm Evaluation (MTE) ...................................... 1-11
`1.5
`Climate Change and Energy Security Drivers for the National Program .................. 1-12
`1.5.1 Climate Change ...................................................................................................... 1-13
`1.5.1.1 Overview of Climate Change Science and Global Impacts ............................ 1-13
`1.5.1.2 Overview of Climate Change Impacts in the United States ............................ 1-17
`1.5.1.3 Recent U.S. Commitments on Climate Change Mitigation ............................ 1-19
`1.5.1.4 Recent California Commitments on Climate Change ..................................... 1-20
`1.5.1.5 Contribution of Cars and Light Trucks to the U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions
`Inventory ........................................................................................................................ 1-20
`1.5.1.6
`Importance of the National Program in the U.S. Climate Change Program ... 1-21
`1.5.2 Petroleum Consumption and Energy Security ....................................................... 1-22
`1.5.2.1 Overview of Petroleum Consumption and Energy Security ........................... 1-22
`1.5.2.2 Recent U.S. Commitments on Petroleum and Energy Security ...................... 1-23
`1.5.2.3 Contribution of Cars and Light Trucks to U.S. Petroleum Consumption ....... 1-23
`1.5.2.4
`Importance of National Program to Petroleum Consumption and Energy
`Security 1-23
`
`Factors Considered in this Report ................................................................................ 2-1
`2.1
`Gathering Updated Information since the 2012 Final Rule ......................................... 2-2
`2.2
`2.2.1 Research Projects Initiated by the Agencies ............................................................ 2-2
`2.2.2
`Input from Stakeholders ........................................................................................... 2-6
`2.2.2.1 Automobile Manufacturers ............................................................................... 2-6
`2.2.2.2 Automotive Suppliers ........................................................................................ 2-6
`2.2.2.3 Environmental Non-governmental Organizations (NGOs) and Consumer Groups
`2-7
`
`2.2.2.4 State and Local Governments ........................................................................... 2-7
`2.2.3 Other Key Data Sources ........................................................................................... 2-8
`Agencies' Approach to Independent GHG and CAFE Analyses ................................. 2-9
`2.3
`
`Changes in the Automotive Market ............................................................................. 3-2
`3.1
`3.1.1 Fuel Economy and GHG Emissions ........................................................................ 3-2
`
`i
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`TOC and Abbreviations
`
`3.1.2 Vehicle Sales ............................................................................................................ 3-3
`3.1.3 Gasoline Prices ......................................................................................................... 3-4
`3.1.4 Car and Truck Mix ................................................................................................... 3-5
`3.1.5 Vehicle Power, Weight, and Footprint..................................................................... 3-7
`3.1.6 Technology Penetration ......................................................................................... 3-11
`3.2
`Compliance with the GHG Program .......................................................................... 3-14
`3.3
`Compliance with the CAFE Program ........................................................................ 3-17
`3.4
`Emerging Transportation Developments ................................................................... 3-22
`
`EPA's Baseline and Reference Vehicle Fleets ............................................................. 4-1
`4.1
`4.1.1 Why does the EPA Establish Baseline and Reference Vehicle Fleets? ................... 4-1
`4.1.2 EPA’s 2014 MY Baseline Fleet ............................................................................... 4-2
`4.1.2.1 EPA’s MY2014 Based MY2022-2025 Reference Fleet ................................... 4-9
`4.1.2.1.1 On What Data Are EPA’s Reference Vehicle Fleet Volumes Based? ..... 4-10
`4.1.2.1.2 How did the EPA develop the 2014 Baseline and 2022-2025 Reference
`Vehicle Fleet Volumes? ............................................................................................. 4-11
`4.1.2.1.3 How was the 2014 Baseline Data Merged with the IHS-Polk Data? ....... 4-11
`4.1.2.1.4 How were the IHS-Polk Forecast and the Unforced AEO 2015 Forecast
`Used to Project the Future Fleet Volumes? ............................................................... 4-12
`4.1.2.2 What Are the Sales Volumes and Characteristics of the MY2014 Based
`Reference Fleet? ............................................................................................................. 4-19
`4.1.2.3 What Are the Differences in the Sales Volumes and Characteristics of the
`MY2008 Based and the MY2014 Based Reference Fleets? .......................................... 4-22
`4.1.3 Relationship Between Fuel Economy and Other Vehicle Attributes ..................... 4-26
`4.1.3.1 Recent Studies of the Engineering Tradeoffs between Power and Fuel Economy,
`and Increases in Innovation ........................................................................................... 4-29
`4.1.3.2 The Role of the Standards in Promoting Innovation ....................................... 4-32
`4.1.3.3 Potential Ancillary Benefits of GHG-Reducing Technologies ....................... 4-34
`4.1.3.4 Estimating Potential Opportunity Costs and Ancillary Benefits ..................... 4-36
`4.1.4
`Incorporation of the California Zero Emissions Vehicle (ZEV) Program into the
`EPA Reference Fleet .......................................................................................................... 4-37
`4.1.4.1 The ZEV Regulation in OMEGA .................................................................... 4-37
`4.1.4.2 The ZEV Program Requirements .................................................................... 4-43
`4.1.4.2.1 Overview .................................................................................................. 4-43
`4.1.4.2.2 ZEV Credit Requirement ......................................................................... 4-44
`4.1.4.2.3 Projected Representative of PHEV and BEV Characteristics for MY2021-
`2025
`4-45
`4.1.4.2.4 Calculation of Incremental ZEVs Needed for ZEV Program Compliance .. 4-
`49
`Development of the CAFE Light Duty Analysis Fleet .............................................. 4-53
`4.2
`4.2.1 Why did NHTSA Develop the Analysis Fleet? ..................................................... 4-53
`4.2.2 How the MY2015 Analysis Fleet Was Developed ................................................ 4-53
`4.2.2.1 Background ..................................................................................................... 4-53
`4.2.3 NHTSA Decision to use 2015 Foundation for Analysis Fleet ............................... 4-54
`4.2.4 Developments in 2015 ........................................................................................... 4-55
`
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`

`TOC and Abbreviations
`
`4.2.5 Manufacturer-Provided Information for 2015 ....................................................... 4-56
`4.2.6 Other Data .............................................................................................................. 4-57
`4.2.6.1 Redesign/Refresh Schedules ........................................................................... 4-57
`4.2.6.2 Technologies ................................................................................................... 4-58
`4.2.6.3 Engine Utilization ........................................................................................... 4-58
`4.2.7 Estimated Technology Prevalence in the MY2015 Fleet ...................................... 4-59
`4.2.8 Engine and Platform Sharing ................................................................................. 4-62
`4.2.8.1 Platform Sharing ............................................................................................. 4-62
`4.2.8.2 Engine Sharing & Inheritance ......................................................................... 4-63
`4.2.9 Class Types and Assignment ................................................................................. 4-64
`4.2.9.1 Regulatory Class ............................................................................................. 4-64
`4.2.9.2 Safety Class ..................................................................................................... 4-64
`4.2.9.3 Technology Class ............................................................................................ 4-64
`4.2.9.4 Technology Cost Class .................................................................................... 4-65
`4.2.10 Mass Reduction and Aero Application ................................................................ 4-65
`4.2.10.1 Mass Reduction ............................................................................................. 4-65
`4.2.10.1.1 Mass Reduction Residual Analysis for Footprint .................................. 4-73
`4.2.10.1.2 Mass Reduction Residual Analysis for Low and High Price Platforms 4-76
`4.2.10.1.3 Mass Reduction Residual Trends for Company Heritage ...................... 4-78
`4.2.10.2 Aerodynamic Application ............................................................................. 4-80
`4.2.11 Projecting Future Volumes for the Analysis Fleet ............................................... 4-82
`
`Overview ...................................................................................................................... 5-1
`5.1
`State of Technology and Advancements Since the 2012 Final Rule ........................... 5-7
`5.2
`5.2.1
`Individual Technologies and Key Developments .................................................... 5-7
`5.2.2 Engines: State of Technology ................................................................................ 5-12
`5.2.2.1 Overview of Engine Technologies .................................................................. 5-13
`5.2.2.2 Sources of Engine Effectiveness Data ............................................................ 5-15
`5.2.2.3 Low Friction Lubricants (LUB) ...................................................................... 5-16
`5.2.2.4 Engine Friction Reduction (EFR1, EFR2) ...................................................... 5-17
`5.2.2.5 Cylinder Deactivation (DEAC) ....................................................................... 5-17
`5.2.2.6 Variable Valve Timing (VVT) Systems .......................................................... 5-17
`Intake Cam Phasing (ICP) ........................................................................ 5-18
`5.2.2.6.1
`5.2.2.6.2 Coupled Cam Phasing (CCP) ................................................................... 5-18
`5.2.2.6.3 Dual Cam Phasing (DCP) ........................................................................ 5-18
`5.2.2.6.4 Variable Valve Lift (VVL) ....................................................................... 5-18
`5.2.2.7 GDI, Turbocharging, Downsizing and Cylinder Deactivation ....................... 5-19
`5.2.2.8 EGR ................................................................................................................. 5-28
`5.2.2.9 Atkinson Cycle ................................................................................................ 5-29
`5.2.2.10 Miller Cycle ................................................................................................... 5-33
`5.2.2.11 Light-duty Diesel Engines ............................................................................. 5-36
`5.2.2.12 Thermal Management ................................................................................... 5-39
`5.2.2.13 Reduction of Friction and Other Mechanical Losses .................................... 5-40
`5.2.2.14 Potential Longer-Term Engine Technologies ............................................... 5-41
`5.2.3 Transmissions: State of Technology ...................................................................... 5-42
`
`iii
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`5
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`

`TOC and Abbreviations
`
`5.2.3.1 Background ..................................................................................................... 5-42
`5.2.3.2 Transmissions: Summary of State of Technology and Changes since the FRM 5-
`43
`5.2.3.3 Sources of Transmission Effectiveness Data .................................................. 5-44
`5.2.3.4 Sources of GHG Emission Improvements: Reduction in Parasitic Losses, Engine
`Operation, and Powertrain System Design .................................................................... 5-46
`5.2.3.5 Automatic Transmissions (ATs) ..................................................................... 5-48
`5.2.3.6 Manual Transmissions (MTs) ......................................................................... 5-51
`5.2.3.7 Dual Clutch Transmissions (DCTs) ................................................................ 5-52
`5.2.3.8 Continuously Variable Transmissions (CVTs) ............................................... 5-53
`5.2.3.9 Transmission Parasitic Losses ......................................................................... 5-56
`5.2.3.9.1 Losses in ATs ........................................................................................... 5-56
`5.2.3.9.2 Losses in DCTs ........................................................................................ 5-56
`5.2.3.9.3 Losses in CVTs ........................................................................................ 5-57
`5.2.3.9.4 Neutral Idle Decoupling ........................................................................... 5-57
`5.2.3.10 Transmission Shift Strategies ........................................................................ 5-58
`5.2.3.11 Torque Converter Losses and Lockup Strategy ............................................ 5-58
`5.2.4 Electrification: State of Technology ...................................................................... 5-59
`5.2.4.1 Overview of Electrification Technologies ...................................................... 5-62
`5.2.4.2 Non-Battery Components of Electrified Vehicles .......................................... 5-64
`5.2.4.2.1 Propulsion Components ........................................................................... 5-65
`5.2.4.2.2 Power Electronics ..................................................................................... 5-66
`5.2.4.2.3
`Industry Targets for Non-Battery Components ........................................ 5-69
`5.2.4.3 Developments in Electrified Vehicles ............................................................. 5-71
`5.2.4.3.1 Non-hybrid Stop-Start .............................................................................. 5-71
`5.2.4.3.2 Mild Hybrids ............................................................................................ 5-74
`5.2.4.3.3 Strong Hybrids ......................................................................................... 5-79
`5.2.4.3.4 Plug-in Hybrids ........................................................................................ 5-82
`5.2.4.3.5 Battery Electric Vehicles .......................................................................... 5-92
`5.2.4.4 Developments in Electrified Vehicle Battery Technology ........................... 5-103
`5.2.4.4.1 Battery Chemistry .................................................................................. 5-104
`5.2.4.4.2 Pack Topology, Cell Capacity and Cells per Module ............................ 5-106
`5.2.4.4.3 Usable Energy Capacity ......................................................................... 5-110
`5.2.4.4.4 Thermal Management ............................................................................ 5-115
`5.2.4.4.5 Pack Voltage .......................................................................................... 5-116
`5.2.4.4.6 Electrode Dimensions ............................................................................ 5-117
`5.2.4.4.7 Pack Manufacturing Volumes ................................................................ 5-118
`5.2.4.4.8 Potential Impact of Lithium Demand on Battery Cost ........................... 5-121
`5.2.4.4.9 Evaluation of 2012 FRM Battery Cost Projections ................................ 5-122
`5.2.4.5 Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles ............................................................................ 5-128
`5.2.4.5.1
`Introduction to FCEVs ........................................................................... 5-128
`5.2.4.5.2 FCEV Cost Estimation ........................................................................... 5-130
`5.2.4.5.2.1 Fuel Cell System Cost ..................................................................... 5-131
`5.2.4.5.2.2 Hydrogen Storage Cost ................................................................... 5-135
`5.2.4.5.2.3 Combined Fuel Cell and Hydrogen Storage Systems Cost ............. 5-135
`5.2.4.5.2.4 Market Projections .......................................................................... 5-137
`
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`

`TOC and Abbreviations
`
`5.2.4.5.3 FCEV Performance Status and Targets .................................................. 5-139
`5.2.4.5.4 Onboard Hydrogen Storage Technology ............................................... 5-141
`5.2.4.5.5 FCEV Commercialization Status ........................................................... 5-141
`5.2.4.5.6 Outlook for National FCEV Launch ...................................................... 5-142
`5.2.5 Aerodynamics: State of Technology .................................................................... 5-143
`5.2.5.1 Background ................................................................................................... 5-143
`5.2.5.2 Aerodynamic Technologies in the FRM ....................................................... 5-143
`5.2.5.3 Developments since the FRM ....................................................................... 5-144
`5.2.5.3.1
`Industry Developments .......................................................................... 5-145
`5.2.5.3.2 Joint Test Program with Transport Canada ............................................ 5-147
`5.2.5.3.3 CARB Control-Tec Study ...................................................................... 5-150
`5.2.5.3.4 EPA Study of Certification Data ............................................................ 5-150
`5.2.5.3.5 Conclusions ............................................................................................ 5-152
`5.2.6 Tires: State of Technology ................................................................................... 5-152
`5.2.6.1 Background ................................................................................................... 5-152
`5.2.6.2 Tire Technologies in the FRM ...................................................................... 5-153
`5.2.6.3 Developments since the FRM ....................................................................... 5-154
`5.2.6.3.1
`Industry Developments .......................................................................... 5-155
`5.2.6.3.2 Control-Tec Analysis of Trends in Tire Technologies .......................... 5-157
`5.2.6.3.3 Canada Tire Testing Program ................................................................ 5-157
`5.2.6.4 Conclusions ................................................................................................... 5-158
`5.2.7 Mass Reduction: State of Technology ................................................................. 5-158
`5.2.7.1 Overview of Mass Reduction Technologies ................................................. 5-158
`5.2.7.2 Developments since the 2012 FRM .............................................................. 5-162
`5.2.7.3 Market Vehicle Implementation of Mass Reduction .................................... 5-163
`5.2.7.4 Holistic Vehicle Mass Reduction and Cost Studies ...................................... 5-166
`5.2.7.4.1 EPA Holistic Vehicle Mass Reduction/Cost Studies ............................. 5-169
`5.2.7.4.1.1 Phase 2 Low Development Midsize CUV Updated Study and
`Supplement 5-170
`5.2.7.4.1.2 Light Duty Pickup Truck Light-Weighting Study .......................... 5-173
`5.2.7.4.2 NHTSA Holistic Vehicle Mass Reduction/Cost Studies ....................... 5-176
`5.2.7.4.2.1 Updated Midsize Car Lightweight Vehicle Study .......................... 5-176
`5.2.7.4.2.2 Light Duty Pickup Truck Light-Weighting Study .......................... 5-179
`5.2.7.4.3 ARB Holistic Vehicle Mass Reduction/Cost Study ............................... 5-184
`5.2.7.4.4 Aluminum Association Midsize CUV Aluminum BIW Study .............. 5-185
`5.2.7.4.5 DOE/Ford/Magna MMLV Mach 1 and Mach 2 Lightweighting Research
`Projects 5-187
`5.2.7.4.5.1 Mach I ............................................................................................. 5-189
`5.2.7.4.5.2 Mach 2 ............................................................................................. 5-192
`5.2.7.4.6 Technical Cost Modeling Report by DOE/INL/IBIS on 40 Percent-45
`Percent Mass Reduced Vehicle ................................................................................ 5-194
`5.2.7.4.7 Studies to Determine Mass Add for IIHS Small Overlap ...................... 5-195
`5.2.7.4.7.1 NHTSA Mass Add Study for a Passenger Car to Achieve a "Good"
`Rating on the IIHS Small Overlap ....................................................................... 5-196
`5.2.7.4.7.2 Transport Canada Mass Add Study for a Light Duty Truck to Achieve a
`"Good" Rating on the IIHS Small Overlap .......................................................... 5-197
`
`v
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`TOC and Abbreviations
`
`5.2.8 State of Other Vehicle Technologies ................................................................... 5-200
`5.2.8.1 Electrified Power Steering: State of Technology .......................................... 5-200
`5.2.8.1.1 Electrified Power Steering in the 2012 FRM ......................................... 5-200
`5.2.8.1.2 Developments since the FRM ................................................................ 5-200
`Improved Accessories: State of Technology ................................................. 5-200
`5.2.8.2
`5.2.8.3 Secondary Axle Disconnect: State of Technology ........................................ 5-201
`5.2.8.3.1 Background ............................................................................................ 5-201
`5.2.8.3.2 Secondary Axle Disconnect in the FRM ................................................ 5-202
`5.2.8.3.3 Developments since the FRM ................................................................ 5-203
`5.2.8.4 Low-Drag Brakes: State of Technology ........................................................ 5-206
`5.2.8.4.1 Background ............................................................................................ 5-206
`5.2.8.4.2 Low Drag Brakes in the FRM ................................................................ 5-206
`5.2.8.4.3 Developments since the FRM ................................................................ 5-206
`5.2.9 Air Conditioning Efficiency and Leakage Credits ............................................... 5-207
`5.2.9.1 A/C Efficiency Credits .................................................................................. 5-208
`5.2.9.1.1 Background on the A/C Efficiency Credit Program .............................. 5-208
`5.2.9.1.2
`Idle Test Procedure ................................................................................ 5-208
`5.2.9.1.3 AC17 Test Procedure ............................................................................. 5-209
`5.2.9.1.4 Manufacturer Uptake of A/C Efficiency Credits since the 2012 FRM .. 5-210
`5.2.9.1.5 Evaluation of the AC17 Test Procedure ................................................. 5-211
`5.2.9.1.6 Conclusions and Future Work ................................................................ 5-215
`5.2.9.2 A/C Leakage Reduction and Alternative Refrigerant Substitution ............... 5-216
`5.2.9.2.1 Leakage .................................................................................................. 5-216
`5.2.9.2.2 Low-GWP Refrigerants ......................................................................... 5-216
`5.2.9.2.3 Conclusions ............................................................................................ 5-218
`5.2.10 Off-cycle Technology Credits ............................................................................ 5-218
`5.2.10.1 Off-cycle Credits Program .......................................................................... 5-218
`5.2.10.1.1 Off-cycle Credits Program Overview .................................................. 5-218
`5.2.10.2 Use of Off-cycle Technologies to Date ....................................................... 5-220
`GHG Technology Assessment ................................................................................. 5-223
`5.3
`5.3.1 Fundamental Assumptions ................................................................................... 5-223
`5.3.1.1 Technology Time Frame and Measurement Scale for Effectiveness and Cost ... 5-
`223
`5.3.1.2 Performance Assumptions............................................................................. 5-224
`5.3.1.3 Fuels .............................................................................................................. 5-227
`5.3.1.4 Vehicle Classification ................................................................................... 5-228
`5.3.2 Approach for Determining Technology Costs ..................................................... 5-229
`5.3.2.1 Direct Manufacturing Costs .......................................................................... 5-229
`5.3.2.1.1 Costs from Tear-down Studies ............................................................... 5-229
`5.3.2.1.2 Electrified Vehicle Battery Costs ........................................................... 5-231
`5.3.2.1.3 Specific DMC Changes since the 2012 FRM ........................................ 5-232
`5.3.2.1.4 Approach to Cost Reduction through Manufacturer Learning .............. 5-232
`5.3.2.2
`Indirect Costs ................................................................................................. 5-237
`5.3.2.2.1 Methodologies for Determining Indirect Costs ...................................... 5-237
`Indirect Cost Estimates Used in this Analysis ....................................... 5-239
`5.3.2.2.2
`5.3.2.3 Maintenance and Repair Costs ...................................................................... 5-243
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`TOC and Abbreviations
`
`5.3.2.3.1 Maintenance Costs ................................................................................. 5-243
`5.3.2.3.2 Repair Costs ........................................................................................... 5-244
`5.3.2.4 Costs Updated to 2013 Dollars ...................................................................... 5-245
`5.3.3 Approach for Determining Technology Effectiveness ........................................ 5-245
`5.3.3.1 Vehicle Benchmarking .................................................................................. 5-246
`5.3.3.1.1 Detailed Vehicle Benchmarking Process ............................................... 5-246
`5.3.3.1.1.1 Engine Testing ................................................................................. 5-247
`5.3.3.1.1.2 Transmission Testing ...................................................................... 5-248
`5.3.3.1.2 Development of Model Inputs from Benchmarking Data ...................... 5-251
`5.3.3.1.2.1 Engine Data ..................................................................................... 5-251
`5.3.3.1.2.2 Engine Map ..................................................................................... 5-251
`5.3.3.1.2.3
`Inertia .............................................................................................. 5-252
`5.3.3.1.2.4 Transmission Data ........................................................................... 5-253
`5.3.3.1.2.5 Gear Efficiency and Spin Losses..................................................... 5-253
`5.3.3.1.2.6 Torque Converter ............................................................................ 5-254
`5.3.3.1.3 Vehicle Benchmarking Summary .......................................................... 5-255
`5.3.3.2 ALPHA Vehicle Simulation Model .............................................................. 5-256
`5.3.3.2.1 General ALPHA Description. ................................................................ 5-256
`5.3.3.2.2 Detailed ALPHA Model Description ..................................................... 5-257
`5.3.3.2.2.1 Ambient System .............................................................................. 5-258
`5.3.3.2.2.2 Driver System .................................................................................. 5-258
`5.3.3.2.2.3 Powertrain System ........................................................................... 5-259
`5.3.3.2.2.3.1 Engine Subsystem ........................................................................ 5-259
`5.3.3.2.2.3.2 Electric Subsystem ....................................................................... 5-260
`5.3.3.2.2.3.3 Accessories Subsystem ................................................................ 5-261
`5.3.3.2.2.3.4 Transmission Subsystem .............................................................. 5-261
`5.3.3.2.2.3.4.1 Transmission Gear Selection ..................................................... 5-261
`5.3.3.2.2.3.4.2 Clutch Model ............................................................................. 5-262
`5.3.3.2.2.3.4.3 Gearbox Model .......................................................................... 5-262
`5.3.3.2.2.3.4.4 Torque Converter Model ........................................................... 5-262
`5.3.3.2.2.3.4.5 Automatic Transmission & Controls ......................................... 5-262
`5.3.3.2.2.3.4.6 DCT Transmission & Control ................................................... 5-263
`5.3.3.2.2.3.4.7 CVT Transmission & Control ................................................... 5-263
`5.3.3.2.2.3.4.8 Driveline .................................................................................... 5-263
`5.3.3.2.2.3.5 Vehicle System ............................................................................. 5-263
`5.3.3.2.3 Energy Auditing .................................................................................