`
`
`
`The Computer
`for the 2 1 st Century
`
`Specialized elements of hardware and software,
`connected by Wires, radio waves and infrared will be
`so ubiquitous that no one will notice their presence
`
`he most profound technologies
`are those that disappear. They
`weave themselves into the fabric
`of everyday life until they are indistin-
`guishable from it.
`Consider writing. perhaps the that
`information technology. The ability to
`represent spoken language symbolical-
`ly for long-term storage freed informa-
`tion from the limits of individual mem-
`ory. Today this technology is ubiqui-
`tous in industrialized countries. Not
`only do books. magazines and newspa-
`pers convey written information. but so
`do street signs. billboards, shop signs
`and even graffiti. Candy wrappers are
`covered in writing. The constant back-
`ground presence of these products of
`"literacy technology” does not require
`active attention. but the information to
`be transmitted is ready for use at a
`glance. It is difficult to imagine modern
`life otherwise.
`Silicon-based information technology.
`in contrast. is far from having become
`part of the environment. More than 50
`million personal computers have been
`sold. and the computer nonetheless re-
`mains largely in a world of its own. It
`
`MARK WEISER is head of the Comput-
`er Science laboratory at the Xerox Palo
`Alto Research Center. He is working on
`the nut revolution of computing after
`workstations. variously imown as ubiqui-
`tous computing or embodied virtuality.
`Before working at PARC. he was a profes-
`sor of computer science at the University
`of Maryland: he received his PhD. from
`the University of Michigan in 191's. Weis-
`er also helped found an electronic pub-
`lishing company and a video arts compa-
`ny and claims to enjoy computer pro-
`“lor the fun of it.” His most
`recent technical work involved the imple-
`mentation of new theories of automatic
`computer memory reclamation. known
`in the field as garbage collection
`
`by Mark Weiser
`
`is approachable only through complex
`jargon that has nothing to do with the
`tasks for which people use computers.
`The state of the art is perhaps analo-
`gous to the period when scribes had to
`know as much about melting ink or
`baiting clay as they did about writing.
`The arcane aura that surrounds per-
`sonal computers is not just a "user in-
`terface“ problem. My colleagues and I
`at the Xerox Palo Alto Research Center
`think that the idea of a “personal” com-
`puter itself is misplaced and that the
`vision of laptop machines. dynabooks
`and “knowledge navigators“ is only a
`transitional step toward achieving the
`real potential of information technolo-
`gy. Such machines cannot truly make
`computing an integral, invisible part of
`people's lives. We are therefore trying to
`conceive a new way of thinking about
`computers. one that takes into account
`the human world and allows the com-
`puters themselves to vanish into the
`background.
`
`uch a disappearance is a horde-
`mentai consequence not of tech-
`nology but of human psycholo-
`gy. Whenever people learn something
`sufficiently well. they cease to be aware
`of it. When you look at a street Sign.
`for example. you absorb its informa-
`tion without consciously performing
`the act of reading. Computer scientist.
`economist and Nobelist Herbert A. Si-
`mon calls this phenomenon “compil-
`ing": philosopher Michael Polanyi calls
`it the ”tacit dimension": psychologist
`J. J. Gibson calls it "visual invariants";
`philosophers Hans Georg Gadamer and
`Martin Heidegger call it the “horizon”
`and the IIready-to—hand"; John Seely
`Brown of PARC calls it the “periphe-
`ry." All say. in essence. that only when
`things disappear in this way are we
`freed to use them without drinking and
`so to focus beyond them on new goals.
`
`The idea of integrating computers
`seamlessly into the world at large runs
`counter to a number of present-day
`trends. "Ubiquitous computing" in this
`context does not mean just computers
`that can be carried to the beach. jun-
`gle or airport. Even the most powerful
`notebook computer. with access to a
`worldwide information network. still
`focuses attention on a single box. By
`analogy with writing, carrying a super-
`laptop is like owning just one very im-
`portant book. Customizing this hook.
`even writing millions of other books.
`does not begin to capture the real pow-
`er of literacy.
`Furthermore. although ubiquitous
`computers may use sound and video
`in addition to text and graphics. that
`does not make them “multimedia com-
`puters." Today's multimedia machine
`makes the computer screen into a de-
`manding focus of attention rather than
`allowing it to fade into the background.
`Perhaps most diametrically opposed
`to our vision is the notion of virtual re-
`ality. which attempts to make a world
`inside the computer. Users don special
`goggles that project an artificial scene
`onto their eyes: they wear gloves or
`even bodysuits that sense their mo-
`tions and gestures so that they can
`move about and manipulate virtual ob-
`jects. Although it may have its purpose
`in allowing people to explore realms
`otherwise inaccessible—the insides of
`cells, the surfaces of distant planets. the
`information web of data bases—virtu-
`al reality is only a map. not a territo-
`ry. It excludes desks. ofifices. other pet»
`ple not wearing goggles and bodysuits.
`weather. u-ees. walks. chance encoun-
`ters and. in general. the infinite rich-
`ness of the universe. Virtual reality fo-
`cuses an enormous apparatus on simu-
`lating the world rather than on invisibly
`enhancing the world that already exists
`Indeed. the opposition between the
`
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`
`UBIQUITOUS COMPUTING begins lo emerge in the form of live
`boards that replace chalkboards as Well as in other devices at
`the Xerox Palo Alto Research Center. Computer scientists
`gather around a live board for discussion. Building boards
`
`and integrating them with other tools has helped researchers
`understand better the eventual shape of ubiquitous comput-
`ing. in conjunction with active badges, live boards can cus-
`tomize the information they display.
`
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`
`H i
`
`ll'lll
`
`.zu-Itiilll
`illlliIuIIW'
`_\
`“Ilinflln“
`
`WIRED AND WIRELESS NETWORKS link computers and al-
`low their users to share programs and data. The computers
`pictured here include conventional terminals and file serv-
`ers. pocket-size machines known as tabs and page-size ones
`
`known as pads. Fumre hemorks must be capable of support-
`ing hundreds ofdevioesina single roomandumstalsooope
`with devicesfiranging from tabs to laser printers or large-
`screen displays—that move from one place to another.
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`notion of virtual reality and ubiquitous.
`invisible computing is so strong that
`some of us use the term "embodied
`virtuality” to refer to the process of
`drawing computers out of their elec-
`tronic shells. The “virmallty” of com-
`puter-teadable dataeall the different
`ways in which they can be altered. pro-
`cessed and analyzed—is brought into
`the physical world.
`
`trols. thermostats and clocks. as well as
`fact as well as in metaphor. Already
`small pieces of paper. Depending on the
`computers in light switches. then-no
`stats. stereos and ovens help to acti-
`room. you may see more than 100 tabs.
`vate the world. These machines and
`10 or 20 pads and one or two boards.
`more will be interconnected in a ubiqui—
`This leads to our goal for initially cle-
`tous network. As computer scientists.
`playing the hardware of embodied virtu-
`allty: hundreds of computers per room.
`however. my colleagues and I have fo-
`cused on devices that transmit and dis-
`Hundreds of computers in a room
`play information more directly. We have
`could seem mtlmldating at first. just
`found two issues of crucial importance:
`as hundreds of volts coursing through
`Wires in the walls once did. But like the
`location and scale. Little is more basic
`
`wires in the walls. these hundreds of
`to human perception than physical jux-
`ow do technologies disappear
`computers will come to be invisible to
`taposition. and so ubiquitous comput-
`into the background? The van-
`ers must lmow where they are. (Today‘s
`common awareness. People will simply
`ishing of electric motors may
`use them unconsciously to accomplish
`serve as an instructive example. At the
`computers. in contrast. have no idea
`everyday tasks.
`of their location and surroundings.) If a
`turn of the century. a typical workshop
`Tabs are the smallest components of
`computer knows merely what room it
`or factory contained a single engine
`that drove dozens or hundreds of dif-
`
`embodied virtuality. Because they are
`is in.
`it can adapt its behavior in sig-
`interconnected. tabs will expand on the
`nificant ways without requiring even a
`ferent machines through a system of
`hint of artificial intelligence.
`usefulness of existing inch-scale com-
`shafts and pulleys. Cheap. small. effi-
`
`puters. such as the pocket calculator
`cient electric motors made it possible
`Ubiquitous computers will also come
`in different sizes. each suited to a
`and the pocket organizer. Tabs will
`first to give each tool its own source of
`
`also take on functions that no comput—
`motive force. then to put many motors
`particular task. My colleagues and I
`er performs today. For example. com-
`have built what we call tabs. pads and
`into a single machine.
`puter scientists at PARC and other re-
`boards: inch-scale machines that ap-
`A glance through the shop manual
`search laboratories around the world
`
`proximate active Post-it notes. foot-scale
`of a typical automobile. for example.
`reveals 22 motors and 25 solenoids.
`ones that behave something like a sheet
`have begun working with active badg-
`
`es—clip-on computers roughly the size
`of paper (or a book or a magazine) and
`They start the engine. clean the wind-
`of an employee ID. card. first devel-
`shield. lock and unlock the doors. and
`yard-scale displays that are the equiva-
`lent of a blackboard or bulletin board.
`
`oped by the Olivetti Cambridge research
`so on. By paying careful attention. the
`How many tabs. pads and board-size
`laboratory. These badges can identify
`driver might be able to discern when-
`
`ever he or she activated a motor. but
`themselves to receivers placed through-
`writing and display surfaces are there
`in a typical room? Look around you:
`there would be no point to it.
`out a building. thus making it possible
`
`at the inch scale. include wall notes.
`Most computers that participate in
`to keep track of the people or objects
`
`embodied virtuality will be invisible in
`titles on book spines. labels on con-
`to which they are attached.
`
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`in our experimental embodied vir-
`tuality, doors open only to the right
`badge wearer. rooms greet people by
`name. telephone calls can be automati-
`cally forwarded to wherever the recipi-
`ent may be. receptionists actually know
`where people are. computer terminals
`retrieve the preferences of whoever is
`sitting at them. and appointment di-
`aries write themselves. The automatic
`diary shows how such a simple task as
`knowing where people are can yield
`complex dividends: meetings. for ex-
`ample, consist of several people spend-
`ing time in the same room. and the
`subject of a meeting is most probably
`the files called up on that room‘s dis-
`play screen while the people are there.
`No revolution in artificial intelligence is
`needed, merely computers embedded
`in the everyday world.
`My colleague Roy Want has designed
`a tab incorporating a small display that
`can serve simultaneously as an active
`badge. calendar and diary. it will also act
`as an extension to computer screens: in-
`stead of shrinking a program window
`down to a small icon on the screen, for
`example. a user will be able to shrink
`the window onto a tab display. This will
`leave the screen free for information
`and also let people arrange their com-
`puter-based projects in the area around
`their terminals. much as they now ar-
`range paper-based projects in piles on
`desks and tables. Carrying a project to
`a different office for discussion is as
`simple as gathering up its tabs: the as-
`sociated programs and files can be
`called up on any terminal.
`
`he next step up in size is the
`pad. something of a cross be-
`tween a sheet of paper and cur-
`rent laptop and palmtop computers.
`Robert Krivacic of PARC has built a
`prototype pad that uses two micro-
`processors. at workstation-size display,
`a mtdtibutton stylus and a radio net-
`work with enough communications
`bandwidth to support hundreds of de-
`vices per person per room.
`Pads differ from conventional por-
`table computers in one crucial way.
`Whereas portable computers go every—
`where with their owners. the pad that
`must be carried from place to place is a
`failure. Pads are intended to be "scrap
`computers" (analogous to scrap paper)
`that can be grabbed and used anywhere;
`they have no individualized identity or
`importance.
`Onewaytothinkofpadsisasananti-
`date to windows. Windows were invent-
`ed at PARC and popularized by Apple in
`the Macintosh as a way of fitting sev-
`eral different activities onto the small
`space of a computer screen at the same
`
`in 20 years computer screens
`time.
`have not grown much larger. Computer
`window systems are often said to be
`based on the desktop metaphor~but
`who would ever use a desk only nine
`inches high by 11 inches wide?
`Pads. in contrast. use a real desk.
`Spread many electronic pads around on
`the desk. just as you spread out papers.
`Have many tasks in front of you. and
`use the pads as reminders. Go beyond
`the desk to drawers. shelves, coffee ta-
`bles. Spread the many parts of the many
`tasks of the day out in front of you to
`tit both the task and the reach of your
`arms and eyes rather than to fit the
`limitations of glasshlowing. Someday
`pads may even be as small and light as
`actual paper. but meanwhile they can
`fulfill many more of paper's functions
`than can computer screens.
`Yard-size displays (boards) serve a
`
`number of purposes: in the home. vid-
`eo screens and bulletin boards: in the
`office. bulletin boards. white boards or
`flip charts. A board might also serve as
`an electronic bookcase from which one
`might download texts to a pad or tab.
`For the time being. hovvever. the ability
`to pull out a book and place it comfort-
`ably on one's lap remains one of the
`many attractions of paper. Similar ob-
`jections apply to using a board as a
`desktop; people will have to become
`accustomed to having pads and tabs
`on a desk as an adjunct to computer
`screens before taking embodied virtu-
`ality any further.
`Prototype boards. built by Richard
`Bruce and Scott Elrod of PARC. are in
`use at several Xerox research laborattr
`ries. They measure about 40 by 60
`inches and display 1.024 x768 black-
`and-white pixels. To manipulate the
`
`The Active Badge
`his harbinger of Inch-scale
`computers contains a small
`microprocessor and an infrared
`transmitter. The badge broad-
`casts the identity of its wearer
`and 'so can trigger automatic
`doors. automatic telephone for-
`warding and computer displays
`customized to each person read-
`ing them. The active badge and
`other networked tiny computers
`
`are called tabs.
`
`99
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`display. users pick up a piece of wire-
`less electronic "chalk" that can work
`either in contact with the surface or
`from a distance. Some researchers. us
`ing themselves and their colleagues as
`guinea pigs. can hold electronically me-
`diated meetings or engage in other
`forms of collaboration around ad live
`board. Others use the boards as test-
`beds for improved display hardware.
`new "chalk" and interactive software.
`For both obvious and subtle rea-
`sons.
`the software that animates a
`large shared display and its electron-
`ic chalk is not the same as that for a
`workstation. Switching back and forth
`between chalk and keyboard may in-
`volve walking several steps. and so the
`act is qualitatively different from using
`a keyboard and mouse.
`In addition.
`body size is an issue. Not everyone can
`reach the top of the board. so a Macin-
`tosh-style menu bar might have to run
`across the bottom of the screen instead.
`We have built enough live boards
`to permit casual use: they have been
`placed in ordinary conference rooms
`and open areas. and no one need sign
`up or give advance notice before us-
`ing them. By building and using these
`boards, researchers start to experience
`
`and so understand a world in which
`computer interaction informally en-
`hances every room. Live boards can
`usefully be shared across rooms as
`well as within them. In experiments
`instigated by Paul Dourish of Euro-
`PARC and Sara Bly and Frank Halasz
`of PARC. groups at widely separated
`sites gathered around boards—each
`displaying the same image—and jointly
`composed pictures and drawings. They
`have even shared two boards across
`the Atlantic.
`Live boards can also be used as bul-
`letin boards. There is already too much
`text for people to read and compre-
`hend all of it. and so Marvin Theimer
`and David Nichols of PARC have built a
`prototype system that attunes its pub-
`lic information to the people reading it.
`Their "scoreboard" requires little or no
`interaction from the user other than to
`look and to wear an active badge.
`Prototype tabs. pads and boards are
`just the beginning of ubiquitous com-
`puting. The real power of the concept
`comes not from any one of these de-
`viccsiit emerges from the interaction
`of all of them. The hundreds of proces-
`sors and displays are not a "user inter-
`face" like a mouse and windows. just
`
`a pleasant and effective "place" to get
`things done.
`What will be most pleasant and effec-
`tive is that tabs can animate objects
`prexiously inert. They can beep to help
`locate mislaid papers. books or other
`items. File drawers can open and show
`the desired folderino searching. Tabs
`in library catalogues can make active
`maps to any book and guide searchers
`to it. even if it is off the shelf. left on a
`table by the last reader.
`In presentations. the size of text on
`overhead slides. the volume of the ain-
`ptified voice. even the amount of am-
`bient light. can be determined not by
`guesswork but by the desires of the lis-
`teners in the room at that moment.
`Software tools for tallying votes in-
`stantly and consensus checking are al-
`ready available in electronic meeting
`rooms of some large corporations; tabs
`can make them widespread.
`
`r I llhe technology required for ubiq—
`
`uitous computing comes in three
`parts: cheap. low—power comput-
`ers that include equally convenient dis-
`plays. software for ubiquitous appli-
`cations and a network that ties them
`all together. Current trends suggest that
`
`
`
`
`
`comm SCRATCHPADS augment the conventional screen
`in this office at the Xerox Palo Alto Research Center. Proto-
`
`type pads are wired to conventional computers: thus far only
`a handful of wireless models have been built.
`
`100
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`
`the first of these requirements will eas-
`ily be met. Flat-panel displays contain-
`ing 640x 480 black-and-white pixels
`are now common. This is the standard
`size for PCs and is also about right
`for television. As long as laptop, palm-
`top and notebook computers continue
`to grow in popularity. display prices
`will fall. and resolution and quality
`will rise. By the end of the decade. a
`1,000 x 800-pixel high-contrast display
`will be a fraction of a centimeter thick
`and weigh perhaps 100 grams. A small
`battery win provide several days of con—
`tinuous use.
`Larger displays are a somewhat dif—
`ferent issue. If an interactive computer
`screen is to match a white board in
`usefulness. it must be viewable from
`arm's length as well as from across a
`room. For close viewing, the density of
`picture elements should be no worse
`than on a standard computer screen.
`about 80 per inch. Maintaining a densi—
`ty of 80 pixels per inch over an area
`several feet on a side implies display-
`ing tens of millions of pixels. The big-
`gest computer screen made today has
`only about one fourth that capacity.
`Such large displays will probably be ex-
`pensive. but they should certainly be
`available.
`The large display will require ad-
`vanced microprocessors to feed it. Cen-
`tral-processing-unit speeds reached a
`million instructions per second in 1986
`and continue to double each year. Some
`industry observers believe that this ex-
`ponential growth in raw chip speed may
`begin to level off about 1994 but that
`other measures of performance. includ-
`ing power consumption and auxiliary
`functions. will still improve. The 100-
`gram flat-panel display, then. might be
`driven by a microprocessor that exe-
`cutes a billion operations per second
`and contains 16 megabytes of on-board
`memory along with sound. video and
`network interfaces. Such a processor
`would draw. on average. a few percent
`of the power required by the display.
`Auxiliary storage devices will aug-
`ment main memory capacity: conserva-
`tive extrapolation of current technol—
`ogy suggests that removable hard disks
`(or nonvolatile memory chips) the size
`of a matchbook will store about 60
`megabytes each. Larger disks contain-
`ing several gigabytes of information
`will be standard. and terabyte storage—
`rougbly the data content of the library
`of Congress—will be common. Such
`enormous stores will not necessarily
`be filled to capacity with usable infor-
`mation. Abundant space will. however.
`allow radically different soategtes of
`information management. A terabyte
`of disk storage will make deleting old
`
`files virtually unnecessary. for example.
`Although processors and displays
`should be capable of offering ubiqui-
`tous computing by the end of the dec-
`ade. trends in software and network
`technology are more problematic. Cur»
`rent implementations of “distributed
`computing" simply make networked
`file servers. printers or other devic-
`es appear as if they were connected
`directly to each user‘s computer. This
`approach, however. does nothing to ex-
`ploit the unique capabilities of physi-
`cally dispersed computers and the in-
`formation embodied in knowing where
`a particular device is located.
`
`omputer operating systems and
`window-based display software
`will harm to change substantial-
`ly. The design of current operating sys-
`tems. such as DOS and Unix. is based
`on the assumption that a computer's
`hardware and software configuration
`will not change substantially while it is
`running. This assumption is reasonable
`for conventional mainframes and per-
`sonal computers. but it makes no sense
`in terms of ubiquitous computing.
`Pads. tabs and even boards may come
`and go at any time in any room. and
`it will certainly be impossible to shut
`down all the computers in a room to
`install new software in any one of
`them. (Indeed. it may be impossible to
`find all the computers in a room.)
`One solution may be “micro-ker-
`nel" operating systems such as those
`developed by Rick Rashid of Carne-
`gie Mellon University and A. S. Tanen-
`baum of Vrije University in Amstere
`dam. These experimental systems con-
`tain only the barest scaffolding of fixed
`computer code: software modules to
`perform specific functions can be read-
`ily added or removed. Future operat-
`ing systems based on this principle
`could shrink and grow automatically to
`fit the changing needs of ubiquitous
`computation.
`Current window display systems also
`are not ready to cope with ubiqui-
`tous computing. They typically assume
`that a particular computer will display
`all the information for a single appli-
`cation. Although the X Window Sys-
`tem and Windows 3.0. for example, can
`cope with multiple screens.
`they do
`not do well with applications that start
`out on one screen and move to anoth-
`er. much less those that peregrinate
`from computer to computer or room
`to room.
`Solutions to this problem are in their
`infancy. Certainly no existing display
`system can perform Well while working
`with the full diversity of input and out—
`put forms required by embodied virtual-
`
`V
`
`RADIO TRANSCEIVER links pads and
`other movable computer devices to the
`wired network. This unit. intended to
`be mounted on the ceiling. contains an-
`tennasinitscrossedarmsandtwolight-
`emitting diodes to signal its status.
`
`lty. Making pads, tabs and boards work
`together seamlessly will require chang-
`es in the kinds of protocols by which
`applications programs and their dis-
`played wlndows communicate.
`The network that will connect ubiq-
`uitous hardware and software poses
`further challenges. Data transmission
`rates for both wired and wireless net-
`works are increasing rapidly. Access to
`gigabit-per-second wired nets is already
`possible. although expensive. and will
`become progressively cheaper. (Giga-
`bit networks will seldom devote all
`of their bandwidth to a single data
`stream: instead they will allow enor-
`mous numbers of lower-speed trans-
`missions to proceed simultaneously.)
`Small wireless networks, based on dig-
`ital cellular telephone princlples. cur-
`rently offer data rates between two and
`10 megabits per second over a range
`of a few hundred meters. Low-pow-
`er wireless networks capable of trans-
`mitting 250.000 bits per second to
`each station wfll eventually be available
`commercially.
`Yet
`the problem of transparently
`linking wired and wireless networks
`resists solution. Although some stop-
`gap methods have been developed. en-
`mneers must develop new communi-
`cations protocols that explicitly rec-
`ognize the concept of machines that
`move in physical space. Furthermore.
`the number of channels envisioned in
`most wireless network schemes is still
`
`Sctctmrlc AMERICAN September 1991
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`very small. and the range large {50
`to iOO meters). so that the total num-
`ber of mobile devices is severely lim-
`ited. The ability of such a system to
`support hundreds of machines in ev
`ery room is out of the question. Sin-
`gle-room networks based on infrared
`or newer electromagnetic technologies
`have enough channel capacity for ubiq-
`uitous computers, but they can work
`only indoors.
`Present technologies would require a
`mobile device to have three different
`network connections: tiny-range wire-
`less. long—range wireless and very high
`speed wired. A single kind of network
`connection that can somehow serve all
`three functions has yet to be invented.
`
`either an explication of the prin-
`
`l \I ciples of ubiquitous comput-
`
`ing nor a list of the technolo-
`gies inVOIVed really gives a sense of
`what it would be like to live in a world
`full of invisible widgets. Extrapolating
`from today's rudimentary fragments
`of embodied virtuaiity is like trying to
`predict the publication of Finnegans
`Wake shortly after haying inscribed the
`first clay tablets. Nevertheless, the ef-
`fort is probably worthwhile:
`
`Sal awakens: she smells coffee. A few
`
`KEY COMPONENTS OF UBIQUITDUS COMPUTING are the pads and tabs under de-
`velopment at the Xerox Palo Alto Research Center. The page-size pad (top, exterior
`and interior views) contains two microprocessors. four million bytes of random-ac-
`cess memory. a high-speed radio link. a high-resolution pen interface and a black-
`and-white display that is 1.024 by F68 pixels. Because it uses standard window
`system software. the pad can communicate with most workstations. The much
`smaller tab (at left). 2 3/4 by 31/4 inches, has three control buttons. a pen interface.
`audio and an infrared link for communicating throughout a room. The author be-
`lieves future homes and offices will contain hundreds of these tiny computers.
`
`minutes ago her alarm clock. alerted
`by her restless rolling before waking.
`had quietly asked. "Coffee?“ and she
`had mumbled. "Yes." "Yes“ and "no"
`are the only words it knows.
`Sal
`looks out her windows at her
`neighborhood. Sunlight and a fence are
`visible through one. and through 0th
`ers she sees electronic trails that have
`been kept for her of neighbors coming
`and going during the early morning.
`Privacy conventions and practical data
`rates prevent displaying n’deo footage.
`but time markers and electronic tracks
`on the neighborhood map let Sal feel
`cozy in her street.
`Glancing at the windows to her kids'
`rooms. she can see that they got up 15
`and 20 minutes ago and are already in
`the kitchen. Noticing that she is up,
`they start making more noise.
`At breakfast Sal reads the news. She
`still prefers the paper form. as do most
`people. She spots an interesting quote
`from a columnist in the business sec-
`tion. She wipes her pen over the news
`paper‘s name. date. section and page
`number and then circles the quote. The
`pen sends a message to the paper.
`which transmits the quote to her office.
`Electronic mail arrives from the com,
`pany that made her garage door open-
`er. She had lost the instruction manual
`and asked them for help. They have
`sent her a new manual and also some-
`thing unexpected—a way to find the
`old one. According to the note. she can
`press a code into the opener and the
`
`missing manual will find itself. In the
`garage. she tracks a beeping noise to
`where the oil-stained manual had fallen
`behind some boxes. Sure enough. there
`is the tiny tab the manufacturer had
`affixed in the cover to try to avoid E-
`mail requests like her own.
`On the way to work Sal glances in
`the foreview mirror to check the traf-
`fic. She spots a slowdown ahead and
`also notices on a side street the telltale
`green in the foreview of a food shop.
`and a new one at that. She decides to
`take the next exit and get a cup of cof—
`fee while avoiding the jam
`Once Sal arrives at work. the fore-
`View helps her find a parking spot
`quickly. As she walks into the building.
`the machines in her office prepare to
`log her in but do not complete the se-
`quence until she actually enters her of-
`fice. On her way, she stops by the of,
`fices of four or five colleagues to ex-
`change greetings and news.
`Sal glances out her windows: a gray
`day in Silicon Valley. ?5 percent humidi-
`ty and 40 percent chance of afternoon
`showers: meanwhile it has been a quiet
`morning at the East Coast office. Usually
`the activity indicator shows at least one
`spontaneous. urgent meeting by now.
`She chooses not to shift the window on
`the home office back three hours—too
`much chance of being caught by sur-
`prise. But she knows others who do.
`usually people who never get a call from
`the East but just want to feel involved.
`The telltale by the door that Sal pro-
`
`102
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`SCIEN‘ITFIC AMERICAN September 1991
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`|PR2020-00910
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`IPR2020-00910
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`grammed her first day on the job is
`blinking: fresh coffee. She heads for
`the coffee machine.
`Coming back to her office. Sal picks
`up a tab and “waves” it to her friend
`Joe in the design group. with whom
`she has a joint assignment. They are
`sharing a virtual office for a few weeks.
`The sharing can take many forms—in
`this case. the two have given each other
`access to their location detectors and
`to each other's screen contents and lo-
`cation. Sal chooses to keep miniature
`versions of all Joe's tabs and pads in
`view and three-dimensionally correct in
`a little suite of tabs in the back comer
`of her desk. she can't see what any-
`thing says. but she feels more in touch
`with his work when noticing the dis-
`plays change out of the corner of her
`eye. and she can easily enlarge any-
`thing if necessary.
`A blank tab on Sal's desk beeps and
`displays the word "Joe” on it. She picks
`it up and gestures with it toward her
`live board. Joe wants to discuss a docu-
`ment with her. and now it shows up on
`the wall as she hears Joe's voice:
`“l‘ve been wrestling with this third
`paragraph all morning. and it still has
`the wrong tone. Would you mind read-
`ing it?”
`Sitting back and reading the para-
`graph. Sal wants to point to a word. She
`gestures again with the “Joe” tab onto a
`nearby pad and then uses the stylus to
`circle the word she wants:
`“i think it's this term ‘ubiquitous.’ It's
`just not in common enough use and
`makes the whole passage sound a little
`formal. Can we rephrase the sentence
`to get rid of it? "
`“1’11 try that. Say. by the way, Sal. did
`you ever hear from Mary Hausdorf? "
`“No. Who's that?”
`“You remember. She was at the meet-
`ing last week. She told me she was go-
`ing to get in touch with you."
`Sal doesn't remember Mary. but she
`does vaguely remember the meeting.
`She quickly starts a search for meet-
`ings held during the past two weeks
`with more than six people not previ-
`ously in meetings with her and finds
`the one. The attendees’ na