Ralph E Jacobson . Sidney F Ray
`
`Geoffrey G Attridge . Norman RAxford
`
`THE MANUAL OF
`
`Photography
`
`
`
`Photographic and Digital Imaging
`
`NINTH EDITION
`
`APPL—1017/ Page 1 of 42
`APPL-1017 / Page 1 of 42
`Apple v. Corephotonics
`Apple v. Corephotonics
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`

`

`The Manual of Photography
`
`Ninth Edition
`
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`

`

`
`
`The Manual of Photography
`Photographic and digital imaging
`
`Ninth Edition
`
`.
`
`Ralph E. Jacobson
`MSG, PhD, CChern, FFlSC, ASIE Hon.. FHF'S,
`FEIF'P
`
`Geoffrey G. Attridge
`aac, PhD. ASE, FRFS
`
`Sidney F. Bay
`BSo, MSo, a513, FEIPF‘, FMFA, FFIPS
`
`Norman R. Axford
`ago
`
`.
`
`i I
`
`E
`!
`i
`
`>
`|
`
`i | ||
`
`I
`
`Focal Press
`
`OXFORD AUCKLAND BOSTON JDHANNESBUHG MELBOURNE NEW DELHI
`
`
`
`APPL—1017/ Page 3 of 42
`APPL-1017 / Page 3 of 42
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`

`Foul Press
`An imprint af Human-Ham
`Lh-mcm Hanan. J'unlan Hill. Oxford 0x2 EDP
`215 Wildmnd hum-m. Wuhmn. MA DIEM—m4]
`.I'l. divis'um 111' Round Ednulianal and mefifliflnll Publishing L”
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`a h nmmbu' afflmei Elan-uln- plr. gm‘up
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`Wm Ward Hawaii quflmagmpfiy
`First publishad 1590
`Film ndltlfln. 1953
`1-11:dede dam. rim
`Fr: Manual qF Photography
`Sill]! edldnr. 1'97fl
`Rupimd 19‘“. 19'”. 19713. 1915
`Swami zillion 19TH
`Regrlnlbd 15173. 193I. 1933. 198'?
`Eighth ndilicm 1953
`-
`Reprinlad 1990. 1991. I993. 1995 {mice}. 19W. 1993
`NEulh ndifinn. 2011']
`
`Q Reed Educational and mensshmfl Publishing Ltd 2116!}
`All 11311:: pear-rad. Nn'pln DWI]: publlfllim mu}? '1': npmducnd in-
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`I. Jacobson. RalphE. {Ralph Eric}. 1941—
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`ISBN [[140 51514 9
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`The manual of photography: phntayaphic and digital imaging. — 91h nimaiph E.
`Jacobson . .
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`1mm.
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`Originally pubflahud in 1391} under It": Liflu: The Word manual of phomgraphy.
`Includes bibliographjfll raft-rates End influx
`ISEH U 144] 515?4 5' (Elk. WM
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`APPL—1017/ Page 4 of 42
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`

`Contents
`
`
`Preface to the first edition of The
`{Reminiscent of Photography
`1390
`Preface to the ninth edition
`
`Imaging svetarns
`
`Ftalph E. Jacobson
`
`The production of imngsa
`Photographic and digital imaging
`Gcncral characteristics of reproduction
`systems
`imaging chains
`The reproduction of tone and colour
`Image quality expectations
`
`Fundamentals of light and 1Itrision
`
`Fialph E. Jacobson
`
`Light waves and particles
`lL'llptics
`The electromagnetic speclmm
`The eye anti vision
`
`Photographic light sources
`
`Sitinettr F. Flatt
`
`Characteristics of light sources
`Light output
`Daylight
`'I‘lmgaten-filament lamps
`Tungsten-halogen iamps
`Fluorescent lamps
`Metal-halide lamps
`Pulsed xenon lamps
`Expendable flashhrclhs
`Electronic flash
`Other sources
`
`The geometr',t of image
`formation
`
`Sid nayr F. Fla-3r
`
`t-ti
`
`tu—
`
`m“Jam“
`
`10
`ll]
`11
`
`15
`
`I5
`2]
`
`26
`
`2'!
`2'?
`
`29
`33
`
`The lens conjugatooqttatitm
`Field angle of View
`Covering power of a lens
`Gcmactric distortion
`
`Depth of field
`Depth of field equao'ons
`Depth of focus
`Perspeco'tre
`
`The photometry of image
`formation
`
`Sidney F. Hair
`
`Stops anti pupils
`Aperture
`_
`Mechatncal vignetting
`[rnage illumination
`Image illuminance with wide-angle
`lenses
`
`Exposure compensation for close—up
`photography
`I Light losses anti Ions transmission
`Flare and its effects
`T-nttmh-ers
`Anti—reflection coatings
`
`Uptlcal aberrations and lens
`performance
`
`Sidneyr F. Rap
`Introduction
`Axial chromatic aberration
`Lateral chromatic aberration
`
`Spherical aberration
`Coma
`Cutwtute of field
`Asngrnarimn
`Curvilincar distortion
`Diffraction
`Resolution and resolving power
`Moclulaticn transfer function
`
`45
`43
`4'3
`49
`5D
`53
`56
`5?
`
`I51
`52
`62
`153
`
`156
`
`61'
`63
`63
`
`12
`
`ta
`t2
`":4
`T5
`T6
`T'l'
`
`_7'l'
`
`T9
`Hi}
`31
`
`Interaction of light with matter
`Image formation
`'
`The simple lens
`Image fcnnaiicn h}- a compound lens
`Graphical construction of images
`
`. 3's-
`4]
`42
`43
`45
`
`Camera lenses
`
`Sid not:r F. Hay
`
`camps lenses
`Compound lenses
`
`.
`
`33
`33
`
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`
`
`vi
`
`Contents
`
`Development of die photographic lens
`Modem cantata lenses
`Wide—angle lenses
`Longal'ocus lenses
`Zoom and varifocal lenses
`Macro lenses
`Teleccnverters
`
`lICitpt'tcai attachments
`Specie] effects
`
`Types of camera
`
`Sidney F. Flay
`
`Survey of development
`Camera types
`Special purpose cameras
`Automatic cameras
`nigital cameras
`Architecture of the digital camera
`
`Camera features
`
`Sidney F. Flay
`
`Shutter systems
`The iris diaphragm
`Viewfinder systems
`Flash synchronization
`Focusing systems
`Autcfoeus systems
`Exposure metering systems
`Battery pchr
`Data imprinting
`
`1.“
`
`Camera movements '
`
`Sidney F. Flay
`Introduction
`Translational Ittovernents
`Rotational movements
`Lens covering power
`Control of image sharpness
`Limits to lens tilt
`Control of unagc shape
`Perspective control lenses
`Shift cerneras
`
`'
`
`11
`
`flptical filters
`
`Sidney F. Flay
`
`Optical filters
`Filter sizes
`Filters and focusing
`Colour filters for hlaelosnd-white
`photography
`Colour filters for colour photography
`Special:fillers
`Polarizing filters
`Filters for darkroom use
`
`35
`38
`91
`93
`95
`93
`99
`llililI
`102
`
`104
`
`[{14
`[GT
`113
`115
`121]
`125
`
`131
`
`13}
`136
`133
`143
`14-4
`151
`154
`ltit'l
`161
`
`153
`
`1153
`1&5
`£65
`166
`1153
`1'11]
`1'1'1
`l'FE-
`l'itl-
`
`1'33
`
`115
`1T3
`l'l3
`
`1'19
`132
`133
`136
`139
`
`12
`
`Sensitive materials and image
`aansors
`
`Ralph E. Jacobson
`
`Latent image formation in silver
`halides
`
`Image formation by charge-coupled
`devices
`
`Production of lightrsensitive materials
`and sensors
`Sizes and formats of photographic and
`electronic sensors and media
`
`13
`
`Spectral sensitivity of
`photographic materials
`
`Geoffrey G. Aldridge
`
`Response of photographic materials to
`shortvtvave radiation
`Response of photographic materials to
`visible radiation
`Spectral sensitization
`Clrlltoehroraatie materials
`Panchrornatie materials
`Extended sensitivity materials
`infrared materials-
`Other uses of dye sensitization
`Determination of die colour sensitivity
`of an unknown material
`Wedge spectrograms
`Spectral sensitivity of digital cameras
`
`14
`
`Principles of colour photography
`
`Geoffrey G. Attridpe
`
`Colour matching
`The first colour photograph
`Additive colour photography
`Sultttactive colour photography
`Additive processes
`Suhtractive processes
`Integral tripaclts
`
`15
`
`Sensitometry
`
`Geoffrey G, Attridpe
`
`The subject
`Exposure
`Density
`Effect of light scatter in a negative
`Collier coefl'e1ent
`DensityIII practice
`The characteristic (H and D} curve
`Main regions of the negative
`characteristic curve
`.
`variation of the characteristic curve
`with the material
`.
`Variation of the characteristic curve
`with development
`
`151
`
`191
`
`193
`
`195
`
`EDI}
`
`2115
`
`205
`
`”211-6
`'20”?
`2'33
`203
`203
`“239
`2051
`
`2.10
`211]
`211
`
`213
`
`213
`214
`21-1-
`214
`215
`21'?
`21'?
`
`218
`
`213
`213
`2.19
`2213
`2'23
`221
`22?.
`
`223
`
`225
`
`225
`
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`

`91
`
`:91
`
`.93
`
`.33
`
`till]
`
`:05
`
`EDS
`
`EDIE
`iii"?
`iii-B
`[[13
`
`it]?
`Lilli
`
`llfl
`llfl
`ill
`
`13
`
`:13
`:14
`:14
`:14
`.15
`.1?
`.l'i‘
`
`13
`
`Gamma-time curve
`
`variation of game with Twavelength
`Placing of the subject on the
`characteristic curve
`
`Average gradient and G
`Contrast index
`Effect of variationin developmentpn
`the negative
`Effectof variation in exposure on the
`negative
`Exposure. latitude
`The response curve of a photographic
`P9P“
`Maximum hlaclr
`
`Exposure range of a paper
`Variation of the print curve with the
`type of Emulsion
`Motion of the print. curve with.
`development
`Requirements in a print
`Paper contrast
`The problem of the subject of high
`contrast
`_
`'Ibne rcprodoctr'on
`Reciprocity lat-rl failure
`Sensitomctric practice
`Senaitometers
`Densitometers
`lillernentarj.r sensitometrjrr
`Sensitometr:.-r of a digital camera
`
`16
`
`The reproduction of colour
`
`Geoffrey G. Attrition
`Colours of the rainbow
`Colours of naturai objects
`Effect of the light source on lire
`appearance of colours
`'
`Response of the eye to-colours
`Primary and complementary colours
`Coroplementary pairs of colours
`Law light levels
`Black—and—white processes
`Colour processes
`Formation of subtractive image dyes
`Colour sensirontetrjur
`Itnperfecdons of colour processes
`Correction of deficiencies of the
`subtractive system
`Masking of colour materials
`Problems of duplication
`The chemistryr of colour image
`formation
`
`Ci'trontogenic processes
`Silver-dye-hleach process
`Instant oolour processes
`Alternative method for-instant
`
`-
`
`-
`
`shamanism
`
`Contents
`
`vii
`
`1?
`
`Photographic processing
`
`Ralph E. Jacobson
`
`Developers and development
`Developing agents
`Preservatives
`Alkalis
`Restrainers {antidogganrs}
`Miscellaneous additions to developers
`Superaridilivitgrr [synergesis]
`Monochrome developer formulae in
`general use
`Changes'In a developer vrith use
`Replenishment
`Preparing developers
`Techniques of development
`Obtaining the required degree of
`development
`Quality control
`Processing following development
`Rinse and stop baths
`Fixcrs
`Silver recover-p
`Bleaching of silver images
`Washing
`Tests for permanence
`Doins
`
`1E
`
`Epoad of materials, sensors and
`systems
`_
`
`Flalph E. Jacobson
`
`Speed of photographic media
`Methods of expressing speed
`Speed systems and standards
`ISO speed ratings for colour materials
`Speed of digital systenm
`Spiced ratings in practice
`
`19
`
`Camera exposure determination
`
`Elaine's.f F. Hav
`
`Camera exposure
`ltl‘llptiraum exposure criteria
`Exposure latitude
`Subject honinance ratio
`Development variations
`Exposure determination
`Practical exposure tests
`Light measurement
`Exposure meter calibration
`Exposure values
`IIlCident light measurements
`Exposure meters in practice
`Photrarrel:rj..r traits
`Spot meters
`ln—camera metering systems
`Electronic flash exposure metering
`Automatic electronic flash
`
`273
`
`233
`I 3.33
`2‘16
`2315
`2?”?
`2??
`233
`
`27!}
`182
`233
`
`235
`
`239
`292
`293
`293
`294
`2915
`293
`239
`sec
`3131
`
`EM
`
`303
`302
`335
`306
`3B?
`303
`
`31D
`
`31B
`311
`311
`312
`313
`313
`315
`315
`315
`313
`313.
`3333
`323
`334
`334
`329
`333
`
`3215
`22.?
`
`22'?
`2211
`2'23
`
`223
`
`230
`
`331
`231
`232
`
`232
`
`333
`334
`334
`
`2.35
`236
`238
`239
`2413
`341
`
`245
`
`'24?
`
`24'?
`
`2:31
`
`' 263
`2153
`2153‘
`
`21"]
`
`___l__'—'______—__—__
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`

`viii
`
`2o
`
`Center:rs
`
`Hard copy output media
`
`Ralph E. Jacobson
`
`Hard was output
`Photographic ratios
`Type of silver halide emulsion
`Paper contrast
`Paper surface
`Paper base
`Colour photographic papers
`Procnssing photographic paper
`Pictrography and Pictrostat
`Dry Silver materials
`Cylithographic materialstyoolor
`Then-oat imaging materials
`Materials for ink—jet printing
`
`21
`
`Production of hard copy
`
`Ralph E. Jacobson
`
`Photographic printing and enlarging
`Types of enlargcrs
`_
`Light sources for enlarging and
`Printing
`Lenses for enlargers
`Emilie“: equipment
`Exposure determination
`Contentions] image manipulation
`Colour printing
`Colour enlarger design
`.
`Titties of colour enlarger
`Methods of evaluating colour negatires
`for afinfins
`'
`Digital output.
`Evaluating the results
`
`335
`
`335
`sss
`336
`331'
`333
`33-9
`339
`340
`344
`345
`346
`346
`34?
`
`3413
`
`349
`349
`
`353
`354
`355
`355
`358
`359
`362
`353.
`
`3455
`35'}
`3'30
`
`23' Colour matters
`
`Geoffrey G. Attrldge
`
`Specification by sample
`The physical specification of onion:
`Specification of colour by synthesis
`Colour gamuts
`Summing up
`
`24'. not. of image formation
`Norman Ft. Axfiord
`Sinusoidal waves
`Images and sine waves
`Imaging sinusoidal patterns
`Fonda: theory of image fonnation
`Measuring modulation transfer
`functions fliJITFJ
`Discrete transforms and sampling
`The M'I'F for a CCD imaging array
`Image quality and MT?
`
`25
`
`Images and Information
`Norman Fl. Axiord
`
`Image noise
`Photographic noise
`Quantifying image noise
`Practical considerations for the
`autocorrcletion function and the
`
`noise power spectrum
`Signal—to-noise ratio
`Detective quantum efficiency {,D-QE]
`information theory-r
`
`25
`
`Digital Image processlng and
`manipulation
`Norman H.4x1ord
`
`Life expectancy of imaging media 33'2
`
`Ftalph E. Jacobson
`
`Life expectancy of photographic media
`Processing conditions
`Storage conditions
`nanospheric gases
`Toning
`Light fading
`Life expectancy of digital media
`
`3?!
`333
`3'35
`376
`3??
`333
`339
`
`linear spatial filtering (convolution)
`Frequency domain filtering
`Non‘linear filtering
`Statistical operations tpoirrt. grey-level
`operations]
`'
`troage restoration
`Edge detection and segmentation
`Image data compression
`
`in dex
`
`333
`
`333
`384
`334
`339
`3-92
`
`353
`
`394
`395
`39'?
`393
`
`406
`403
`4“
`411
`
`413
`
`413
`413
`413'
`
`419
`410
`422
`426
`
`425
`
`423
`4-29
`433
`
`434
`are
`442
`443
`
`4-4?
`
`APPL—1017/ Page 8 of 42
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`

`

`this for
`
`.'rays of
`rared as
`cne for
`lumina-
`L'tnate a
`can be
`tuit
`the
`typical.
`b in the
`demise
`local
`
`doctor
`emits
`he by
`menus
`
`tlight
`ape of
`to It
`lediu
`form.
`iicaily
`rstems
`
`ionoi
`Elfin
`
`iogy.
`
`the
`
`edn.
`
`died
`
`Interaction of light with matter
`
`Imaging generally records the interaction of light or
`radiation with the subject. except for self—luminous or
`emissiye subjects and uses lenses or optical systems
`to form an image at. the photoplane of a camera. Thorn
`are four principal efl'ects of the interaction of light
`with an object. namely absorption. reflection. trans—
`mission. and chemical change. The first two of these
`always occur to some extent: transmission occurs in
`the case of translucent or transparent matter, and
`chemical change occurs under appropriate circum-
`stances. The absorbed light energy is not destroyed.
`but converted to another such as heat. or sometimes
`electrical or chemical energy. This chapter details the
`behaviour of reflected or transmitted light. and the
`fonnstion of an optical image.
`
`Transmission
`
`t and translucent materials allow -
`
`Some u'ansparen
`light to pass completely through them apart from
`absorption losses. Such light is said to be transmitted
`and the transmittance {T} of the material is the ratio
`of emergent luminous flux to incident luminous flux.
`Direct transmission (sometimes miscalled 'specular
`transmission“)
`refers to light
`transmitted without
`scatter. as for example by clear optical glass. If
`retentive absorption takes place for particular wave-
`lengths of incident white light. men the material is
`seen as coloured by nansrnitted light. as in the ease of
`a camera filter. Ifscoitering occurs. as in a mluocot
`medium.
`the light undergoes difi'usc transmission.
`which may be uniform or directional or preferential.
`The nansrnittance of such a medium may be defined
`asiucitherageneral or Inaspecrlicdircction.
`
`Reflection
`
`Depending on the nature of the surface. particularly
`its smoothness. the reflection of light may be direct or
`artful-e. Direct or specular reflection is the type of
`reflection given by a highly polished octane such as
`a mirror, and is subject to the lows of reflection
`{Figure 4.1}. Light incident on the surfscc'rs reflected
`at an angle equal
`to tlre‘anglc of incidence. {The
`angles of incidence and reflection are both measured
`
`
`
`4 The geometry of image formation
`
`Noh‘nal
`
`
`
`...
`
`"""we»Jaimie?
`
`
`
`
`.w'mnit' '
`
`Figure 4.1 Specular reflection of an incident light ray by a
`plane ndrror. i = r
`_
`
`from the normal. Le. the line perpendicular to the
`surface at
`the point of incidence.) The surface
`brightness of a directly reflecting surface is highly
`dapendent on 1tricttrpoint.
`it perfectly diffuse or
`Ininhertion radians. on the other hand. reflects the
`incident
`light equally in all directions;
`thus
`its
`brighnress or luminance is seen as constant irrespec—
`tive of viewpoint. Few srnfaces have. such extreme
`properties: shiny surfaces usually produce some.
`scattered light. and matt surfaces {Figure 4.2} may
`show a ‘shecrr'. Reflection from most
`surfaces
`combines both direct and diffuse reflection and is
`known as mixed reflection. Depending on the proper-
`ties of the incident Eight. tlrenature of thematerial and
`angle of incidence. the reflected light may also he
`panially or completely polarized. Objects are seen
`mainly by diffusely reflected light which permits the
`perception of detail and texture. qualities not. found in
`specular surfaces such as mirrors.
`Reflectance {R} is defined as die ratio of the
`reflected luminous flux to the incident luminous flair.
`and {as with transmittance) this may be defined as
`either genteel or in a specific direction. Surfaces
`
`lnclclont; rayI
`
`H atlnc tad rays
`
`
`
`Figure 4.2 The diffuse mt'lectinn of an. incident light try by
`a malt surface
`
`—_.l....__—._—_.____._
`
`APPL—1017/ Page 9 of 42
`APPL-1017 / Page 9 of 42
`
`

`

`40 The geometry ofimogefonnottoa
`
`
`Glass
`Refractive index
`
`
`1.45—1.53
`Crown
`1.53-1.55
`Flint
`Dense flint
`LEE-1.92
`
`
`
`
`A
`-— —————
`7 so“
`
`I l
`
`Normal
`
`Incident
`“5‘!"
`
`E
`
`commonly encountered have reflectances in the
`{hill [2 per cent) {matt black paint]: to [ltd {90 per
`cont}.
`
`Refraction
`
`When a ray of light being transmitted in one medium
`passes-hire another pi different optical properties its
`direction is changed arthc interface except in the case
`when it enters nonnally.
`i.e. perpendicular to the
`interface. "this deviation. or reduction of ' the ray
`results from a. change in the velocity of light
`in
`passing from one median: to the neat [Figure #3}.
`Lenses utilize the refraction of glass toform images.
`Light travels more slowly in a denser medium. and a_
`decrease {increase} in velocity causes the ray to be
`bent towards {away from} the normal. Theratio of the
`velocity in empty space to that within the medium is
`lpoown as the reductive cider {it} of the medium. For
`two media of refractive indices HI and n; where the
`angles of incidence and refraction are respectively i
`and r. thentho amount of refraction is given by Snails-
`Lttw:
`_
`
`alsini=a2sinr
`
`{l}
`
`"liking it. as being air of refractive index oppress
`intatelyeqttal lo l.thcntha refractive indexofthe
`medium a; is given by
`
`sin i
`
`".2 2 —._
`am it
`
`{2'}
`
`The velocity oflightin anoptical medium depends
`on its wavelength. and reflective index. varies in a
`non-linear manner with wavelength. being greater for
`blue light
`then for red light. A quoted value for
`
`refractive index {:14} applies only to one particular
`wavelength. The one usually quoted (:1de refers to the
`refractive index at the wavelength of the at line in the
`helium spectrum {53? nun).
`When light is transmitted by clear optical glass
`solids or prisons. refraction causes effects such as
`deviation. dispersion and total
`internal
`tfliflfflflfl
`(Figure 4.4). Deviation is the-change of direction of
`the emergent ray with respect to the direction of the
`incident ray. In the ease of a parallelusidcd glass
`block. the emergent ray is not deviated with respect to
`the original
`incident ray: but it is displaced.
`the
`amount depending on the angle of incidence and the
`thickness ofthc bluekanditsrefiactive index. A non.
`parallel-sided pn'srn deviates the ray by two relied
`tions. the deviation D depending on the retracting
`angled. of the prism. and on its refractive index. But
`when white light is deviated by a prism it is also
`dispersed to form a spec-mun. The dispersive power
`of a prism is not directly related to its refractive index
`and it is possible to almost neutralize dispersion by
`using two different types of glass together. whilst
`retaining some deviation. In achromatic tenses this
`allows rays of different wavelengths to he brought to
`a common focus {see Chapter 45}.
`Forarayefljghtcniergingfrornadensemedium
`ofrefrtte’tiveindcxn1inloaleasdertsemeditttnuf
`refractive index in. the angle of refraction is greater
`than the angle of incidence. and increases as the angle
`of incidence increases until a critical voids {in} is
`reached. At this angle of incidence the ray will not
`emerge at all. it will undergo total internal reflection
`tits}.
`.
`in = sin"I
`At
`this critical angle of incidence.
`{Mills}- For air in. = 1). also for glass with in = 1.66.
`in is 31" degrees. TIR is used in reflector prisms to give
`almost mil per cent reflection as compared with 95
`per cent at best for uncoated front-surface mirrors. A
`45 degree prism will deviate a coilimoted (he.
`parallel} beam through 9d degrees by Tilt: but for a
`
`
`
`APPL—1017/ Page 10 of 42
`APPL-1017 / Page 10 of 42
`
`

`

`of H’
`
`.l"
`
`3.
`d
`Hllraehed
`rai.r
`_ TtuTnTaI
`
`Air
`
`Norm-I
`'_ r
`
`_
`
`Incident
`I‘l'tr
`
`
`
`
`t‘
`
`_"
`
`d-tshti1—£1
`
`
` Helmets-d rev
` 'Ineldant llt'tl'
`
`twists Ittthli.
`
`...........
`lct
`
`Red
`Green
`Blue
`
`intarnlllf
`reflected rev
`
`Angie t - Angler
`Anon t' :5 Angle:
`
`
`”V
`m
`
`Figure 4.4 Moos oonoequmoet of remnant of light by
`glass pdanta.(e}hraonoelromatic1ighttarpeasiog
`obliquely tirtoogh a'parsileJ-sided glass hloelt. and resultant
`dlsplaeenamt d'. {h} Reflection of monochromafic light named
`by its passage through I prim. and resistant deviation D.
`{e} Dispersion of tvhlte light by a. prism. to] Thtai intecnai
`reflection in a right-angled prism. critical angle C
`
`tritiehtr diverging boars the angle of incidence may
`not erased the critical angle for the whole beam, and
`it may be necessary to metallize the reflecting
`surfaoe.
`
`The geometry of image fine-oils“
`
`41
`
`
`
`Figure-1.5 Formation ofanimagehyaplnhole'lhe
`hontflesofrtjrsfiompohttsmtflrcsnhjectfipasattn-ough
`pinhole P muld'rvergetol’enn an lmageI onphotopiano
`mrtmeK.1hem1Igeieiavmmd,mvmee¢eneflumdhetm
`sharpness
`
`image formation
`
`When light from a subject passes through an optical
`system,
`the subject may.r appear to the viewer as
`being in a different place {anti probably of a
`differem sine}. This is due to the fomtation of an
`eprr'eol image An optical systmn may he as simple
`as
`'a plane mirror or as compIex as
`a highly
`correctedcamera lens. A simple method ofwage
`formation is via a pinhole in an opaque material
`{Figure 4.5}. Two properties of this image are that
`itis techie itcanhofonhedortascreenasrays
`from the object pass through the pinhole, and the“,
`as light
`travels in straight
`liner.
`the image is
`inset-red. and laterally reversed left
`to right as
`viewed from behind a scatmiog {focusing} screen.
`The ground—glass
`focusing scram of-a technical
`camera when used 1arith a pinhole shows such an
`
`A. pinhole is limited in the formation of real
`images. as the sharpness depends on the size of the
`pinhole. The optimum diameter {K} for a pinhole is
`given by the approximate formula:
`
`E if
`25
`
`.
`
`{3}
`'
`
`where v is the distance from pinhole to screen. A.
`larger hole gives a brighter but less sharp image. A
`smaller hole gives a ietts bright imageI but this is also
`less sharp owing to dlfiraction {see Chapter t5}.
`Although a pinhole image does not suffer [rem
`curvilinear thatortirto1 as images produced by lenses
`Inn‘sr do,
`its poor transmission of light and lott-r
`moludon hoth limit its use to a few specialized
`applications.
`
`APPL—1017/ Page 11 of 42
`APPL-1017 / Page 11 of 42
`
`

`

`42 The gens-rem: qfiutngefomtotion
`
`
`
`Figure 4.5 Negative and positive lenses to} it. simple
`positive its-ls considered as a series of prisms. {h} Formation
`of a. virtual image of a paint object by I negative lens
`
`The simple lens
`
`Alensisasvstem ofenemmompiecesefglass or
`elements with (usually) spherical surfaces, all of
`whose ceases are on a cannon axis, the apricot [or
`principal] axis. A simple ctr thin lens is a single piece
`of glass or'element where axial thiclcrtess is small
`compared with its diameter1 whereas a connected or
`Illicit lens consists of several air spaced remnants.
`same of which mayr comprise several elements
`cemented together.
`to correct
`for aberrations. A
`simple lens may be regarded as a number of prisms,
`as shown in Figure 4.15. Light diverging from a point
`source P. and incident on the heat surface of the
`positive lens is redirected by refraction to form a real
`image at point P2. These rays are said to come to a
`films. Alternatively, by using a negative'lens, the
`incident rays may.r be further diverge-d by the refrac-
`tion of the lens. and so appear to have originated from
`a virmoifhcas at point P3.
`‘
`Thefmniandrearsurfacesufthelene maybe
`convert, concave or plane; the silt usual configura—
`tions ef simple spherical lenses are shovm iii-cross-
`seetien in Figure 431A meniscus lane is one in which
`the centres of carveme ef the surfaces are both he
`the same side of the lens. Simple positive mtmiseus
`lenses are used as close-up lenses for cameras. mate
`the same reflecting power in diopnes is possible with
`various pairs of curvatures, the shape cf a close-up
`lens is important in determining its effect on the
`quality of the image given by the lens on the
`CHIIJBIE...
`
`- The relationships between the various parameters
`of a single-clement lens of refractive index nu. axial
`Iificlmess g and radii ef curvature of the surfaces R1
`
`[33}
`
`Finn-e at? Shingle lens. {a} Lens parlrnetem: A. Optics]
`axis: (21. C1, centresci'curvature withrsrili R. mean; V.
`and V3, vertiees df Spherical surfaces; 0.. optical scene: It,
`refiwtive index: I. Irisl thickness: 1). diameter. (h) Shape
`eooflgm-stinns: plane—Dolmen, plum-curtave, equi-bticmm.
`eqci-hieemave. positive meniscus, negative meniscus
`
`and R5 required to give afar-at isngrhfor frflhnctivel
`power K are given by the general
`'1ensmalrers'
`funds“:
`
`K: — = (’35- u (—+—)+(M)
`
`.-
`
`l
`
`I
`
`— l
`
`'
`
`£1
`
`£1
`
`iislfitfls.
`
`1
`
`f
`
`as
`
`{5}
`
`Forfmeasured in millimetres, power if: 10!:ngth
`dioptres. For a thin lens, equatimt {4} simplifies to
`l.
`l
`l
`s=—n{ —1}———
`
`-l"
`
`”d
`
`(R1 Rs)
`
`Image formation hp a simple positive lens
`
`irrespective of their configuration of elements. cam-
`era lenses are similar to simple lenses in their image—
`forming properties.
`In particular, a camera lens
`always forms a real image ifthe object is at a distance
`cf more than one fecal length. The formation of the
`idee of a point source has been discussed, now let
`
`
`
`APPL—1017/ Page 12 of 42
`APPL-1017 / Page 12 of 42
`
`

`

`‘———'——'——-'——'F-——----———|-u-—_________
`
`Image formulion by a. positive lens. {a} Fort a
`Figure 1.3
`distant sulrject: F Ls the rear principal focal plar'ro'. {b} for a
`near subject: focusing extension E :- [tr —fl', I is an inverted
`real image
`
`-——~——-————.
`
`Dll'lrl'fll.
`
`active]
`rakers'
`
`II
`
`to
`
`cap in
`BE ll}
`
`[5}
`
`. carn—
`mage—
`r
`lens
`stance
`of the
`ovr let
`
`us consider the formation of the image of an extended
`object.
`if the object is near the lens. the position and also
`of the optical
`image can be determined from the
`refraction of light diverging to the lens from two
`points at opposite ends of the object. Figure 4.3
`shows this for a simple lens. The image is inverted.
`laterally reversed. acidified, behind the lens and
`real.
`
`To a first approximation. a distant object can he
`considered as being located at infinity. The rays that
`reach the lens from any point on the object are
`effectively psrnllel. As before the image is formed
`close to the lens. inverted. laterally reverend and real.
`The image plane in which this image is formed is
`termed ll'teprr'ncipaffacai plane {F}. For a flat distant
`object and an ‘idoal' lens. every image point lies in
`this plane. The point of intersection of the focal plane
`and the optical axis is termed the rearprinclpalfocas
`{or simply the focus) of the lens. and the distance
`from this point to the lens is termed the focal lengrh
`if] of the lens. Only for an object at iufmity does the
`image distance or conjugate {tr} from the lens cor-re-
`spond to the focal length. As the object approaches
`the lens the. object distance it decreases}, the value of
`it increases {for s positive less}. If the lens is-tumed
`round. a second focal point is obtained; the focal
`length remains the same. The focal lengths of thick
`lenses are measured‘from different points in the lens
`
`__rL.___-.__s_
`
`The geometry of image fonnaticn 43
`
`configuration {see helovr). Finally. the distance of the
`focus from the rear surface of a lens is lruovrn as the
`
`is of
`back focus or back focal distance. This
`importance in camera design so that optical devices
`such as reflect mirrors or beam-splitting prisms can he
`located heme-err lens and photoplanc.
`
`Imago formation by a compound
`lens
`.
`
`A lens is considered as 'thin' if its axial thickness is
`
`small compared to its diameter and to the object and
`image distances and its focal length. so that measure
`rooms can he made from the plane passing through its
`centre without significant error (Figure 4.9a}. 1|rltr'ilh a
`compound lens of axial tln'ctoess that is a significant
`fraction of its
`focal
`length.
`these measurements
`plainly cannot be made simply from the front or back
`surface of the lens or some point
`in between.
`Hoyt-lever. it was proved by Gauss that a duct: or
`compound lens could be treated as an equivalent thin
`one. and thin—lens formulae used to compute image
`properties. provided that
`the. object and image
`conjugate distances were measured from two theoret~
`ical planes fixed Itlrith reference to the lens. This is
`referred to as Gaussian optics. and holds for paraxial
`conditions. i.e. for rays whose angle of incidence to
`the optical axis is less than some ill degrees.
`Gaussian optics uses silt defined cardinal or Garass
`points for any single lens or system of lenses. Those
`are tvro principal focal pcrir'rts'+ tvro principal paints
`and torn nodal points. The corresponding planes
`through those points orthogonal to the optical axis are
`called the focal planes, principal planes and nodal
`planes respectively {Figure 4.911}. The focal length of
`a lens is then defined as the distance from a given
`principal point: to the chrespondiug prhscipal focal
`point. So a lens has two focal lengths. an object focal
`length and an image focal length; these are. however.
`usurdly equal {see below}.
`The definitjmrs and properties of the cardinal
`points are as follows:
`
`(2}
`
`(1} Object principal focal point {F1}: The point
`whose image is on the axis at
`infinity in the
`image s
`Image principal focal point {F2}: The point
`occupied by the image of an object on the axis
`at infinity in the object space.
`[3} Object princrpal point {P.l: The poirrt that is a
`distance from the object principal focal point
`equal to the object focal length Fl. ill-ll object
`distances are measured from this point.
`image principal point
`(P2): The point. at a
`distance from the image principal focal point
`equal to the image focal length F2. as iniago
`distances are measured from this point. The
`principal planes
`through these points
`are
`
`{4]
`
`APPL—1017/ Page 13 of 42
`APPL-1017 / Page 13 of 42
`
`

`

`
`
`44 The gemttetty of image Jami-altar:
`
`
`
`[Hi Simple Inna
`
`Frant principal
`plane
`lna-tlal plane:
`
`Hear principal
`plane
`lnadal plane}
`
`
`
`space
`
`{bi Cmpnund lenl
`
`lmagefnunatinnhyaimplaandmpaandleaaea. {aJForaahnptalme.d|Zttaneea-remaaturedfinmflteapdeai
`Flamed!
`emueaflhelena: diatmeyiaflufiaenaingemian. [hJFnrammpwndlahndlflmmegmmeumdfi-mnthapfimipalat
`undllpiltmslthepfitndpalpllmmhtddeedthlhenodulplaneawhenthelumiawhelhrinaifl
`
`important. as the thick lens system can be heated
`aaii‘lherefl-atrtinnnfthelightrapabythelena
`takes place at these planes only. An important
`additional property is that the}r areplanea nfunit
`mapnifinatinn fat-conjugateraya.
`{5} Object 319:1de EN.) and
`(+5]
`Image nodal paint {N1} These are a pair of
`planes and-t that rays arming the Jena in the
`direelian uftiteohjentnedalpnimleave the Iana
`navcflingpatafleltotheirorifinaldheefianaaif
`the}r Camflfimnflwimflgflmpflfflt.finy such
`rap is displaced but not deviated. If a lens is
`
`rotated a few depletes about its rear nodal paint
`theimagenfadiatanlnbject edflretnain
`atatinnaijr. This put-apart}.r is need to Innate the
`nodal paints. and is the optimal principle tinderh
`lying one foam nf panoramic camera.
`
`If the lens liea tarball}.r in air. the abject and image
`focal
`length of the nmnmua elements
`in the.
`configuration Lintnwn as the aficfive an: equivalent
`focal page: are equal. and the positinna of the
`principal and nude] points coincide. This
`can—
`aiderahly simplifies imaging efleulafinna. The value
`
`"-—'—_.———-————_______
`
`APPL—1017/ Page 14 of 42
`APPL-1017 / Page 14 of 42
`
`

`

`of Gaussian optics is that if the positions of the object
`and cardinal points are known. the image position and
`magnification can be calculated with no other knowl-
`edge of the optical sysomi. Positions of the cardinal
`points and planes can be used for graphical cease-ac-
`tinn of
`image proporties
`such as
`location and
`magnification.
`Usually the nodal points lie within t