WIRELESS
`Communications
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`Ex. 1021 / Page 1 of 116
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`ERICSSON v. UNILOC
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`Principles @Practice
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`ERICSSON v. UNILOC
`Ex. 1021 / Page 1 of 116
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`Wireless
`Communications
`
`Principles and Practice
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`
`
`Theodore S. Rappaport
`
`For book and bookstore information
`
`http:/Avww.prenhall.com
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`23 Prentice Hall PTR
`=
`Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
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`ERICSSON v. UNILOC
`Ex. 1021 / Page 2 of 116
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`ERICSSON v. UNILOC
`Ex. 1021 / Page 2 of 116
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` Editorial/production manager’ Camille Trentacoste
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`© 1996 by Prentice Hall PTR
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`ERICSSON v. UNILOC
`Ex. 1021 / Page 3 of 116
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`Contents
`
`)
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`|
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`Preface
`1 Introduction to Wireless Communication Systems
`1.1 Evolution of Mobile Radio Communications
`1.2 Mobile Radiotelephone in the U.S.
`1.3 Mobile Radio Systems Around the World
`1.4 Examplesof Mobile Radio Systems
`1.4.1 Paging Systems
`1.4.2 Cordless Telephone Systems
`1.4,3 Cellular Telephone Systems
`1.4.4 Comparison of Common Mobile Radio Systems
`1.5 Trends in Cellular Radio and Personal Communications
`1.6 Problems
`2 The Cellular Concept — System Design Fundamentals
`2.1 Introduction
`2.2 Frequency Reuse
`
`2.3 ChannelAssignmentStrategies
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`2.4 Handoff Strategies
`2.4.1 Prioritizing Handoffs
`2.4.2 Practical Handoff Considerations
`2.5 Interference and System Capacity
`2.5.1 Co-channel Interference and System Capacity
`2.5.2 Adjacent Channel Interference
`2.5.3 Power Control for Reducing Interference
`2.6 Trunking and Grade of Service
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`xi
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`vi
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`Contents
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`2.7 Improving Capacity in Cellular Systems
`2.7.1 Cell Splitting
`2.7.2 Sectoring
`2.7,3 A Novel Microcell Zone Concept
`2.8 Summary
`2.9 Problems
`3 Mobile Radio Propagation: Large-Scale Path Loss
`3.1 Introduction to Radio Wave Propagation
`3.2 Free Space Propagation Model
`3.3 Relating Powerto Electric Field
`3.4 The Three Basic Propagation Mechanisms
`3.5 Reflection
`3.5.1 Reflection from Dielectrics
`3,5.2 Brewster Angle
`3.5.3 Reflection from Perfect Conductors
`3.6 Ground Reflection (2-ray) Model
`3,7 Diffraction
`3.7.1 Fresnel Zone Geometry
`3.7.2, Knife-edge Diffraction Model
`3.7.3 Multiple Knife-edge Diffraction
`3.8 Scattering
`3.8.1 Radar Cross Section Model
`3.9 Practical Link Budget Design using Path Loss Models
`3.9.1 Log-distance Path Loss Model
`3.9.2 Log-normal Shadowing
`3.9,3 Determination of Percentage of Coverage Area
`3,10 Outdoor Propagation Models
`3.10.1 Longley-Rice Model
`3,10.2 Durkin’s Model — A Case Study
`3,10.3 Okumura Model
`3.10.4 Hata Model
`3.10.5 PCS Extension to Hata Model
`3.10.6 Walfisch and Bertoni Model
`3.10.7 Wideband PCS Microcell Model
`3.11 Indoor Propagation Models
`3.11.1 Partition Losses (samefloor)
`3.11.2 Partition Losses between Floors
`3.11.3 Log-distance Path Loss Model
`3.11.4 Ericsson Multiple Breakpoint Model
`3.11.5 Attenuation Factor Model
`3.12 Signal Penetration into Buildings
`3.13 Ray Tracing and Site Specific Modeling
`3.14 Problems
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`Contents
`54
`54
`57
`él
`63
`63
`69
`69
`70
`74
`78
`78
`99
`94
`85
`85
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`Contents
`4 Mobile Radio Propagation: Small-Scale Fading and Multipath 139
`4.1 Small-Scale Multipath Propagation
`139
`4.1.1 Factors Influencing Small-Scale Fading
`140
`4.1.2, Doppler Shift
`141
`4.2 Impulse Response Model of a Multipath Channel
`143
`4.2.1 Relationship Between Bandwidth and Received Power
`147
`4.3 Small-Scale Multipath Measurements
`153
`4.3.1 Direct RF Pulse System
`154
`4,3,2 Spread Spectrum Sliding Correlator Channel Sounding
`155
`4.3.3 Frequency Domain Channel Sounding
`158
`4.4 Parameters ofMobile Multipath Channels
`159
`4.4.1 Time Dispersion Parameters
`160
`4.4.2 Coherence Bandwidth
`163
`4.4.3 Doppler SpreadandCoherenceTime
`165
`4,5 Types of Small-Scale Fading
`167
`4.5.1 Fading Effects Due to Multipath Time Delay Spread
`168
`4.5.2 Fading Effects Due to Doppler Spread
`170
`4.6 Rayleigh and Ricean Distributions
`172
`4.6.1 Rayleigh Fading Distribution
`172
`4.6.2 Ricean Fading Distribution
`174
`4.7 Statistical Models for Multipath Fading Channels
`176
`4.7.1 Clarke’ s Model for Flat Fading
`177
`4.7.2. Simulation of Clarke and Gans Fading Model
`181
`4.7.3 Level Crossing and Fading Statistics
`185
`4.7.4 Two-ray Rayleigh Fading Model
`188
`4.7,5 Salehand ValenzuelaIndoorStatisticalModel
`188
`4.7.6 SIRCIM and SMRCIM Indoor andOutdoorStatistical Models
`189
`4.8 Problems
`192
`5 Modulation Techniques for Mobile Radio
`197
`5.1 Frequency Modulation vs. Amplitude Modulation
`198
`5.2 Amplitude Modulation
`199
`5.2.1 Single Sideband AM
`202
`5.2.2 PilotTone SSB
`203
`5.2.3 Demodulation of AM signals
`206
`5.3 Angle Modulation
`206
`5.3.1 Spectra and Bandwidth ofFM Signals
`208
`5.3.2 FM Modulation Methods
`209
`5.3.3 FM Detection Techniques
`211
`5.3.4 Tradeoff Between SNR and Bandwidth in an FM Signal
`219
`5.4 Digital Modulation — an Overview
`220
`5.4.1 Factors ThatInfluence the Choice of Digital Modulation
`221
`5.4.2 Bandwidth and Power Spectral Density of Digital Signals
`224
`5.4.3 Line Coding
`225
`5.5 Pulse Shaping Techniques
`225
`5.5.1 Nyquist Criterion for ISI Cancellation
`227
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`229
`5.5.2 Raised Cosine Rolloff Filter
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`233
`5,5.3 Gaussian Pulse-shaping Filter
`234
`5.6 Geometric Representation of Modulation Signals
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`238
`5.7 Linear Modulation Techniques
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`238
`5.7.1 Binary Phase Shift Keying (BPSK)
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`242
`5.7.2 Differential Phase Shift Keying (DPSK)
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`243
`5.7.3 Quadrature Phase Shift Keying (QPSK)
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`246
`5.7.4 QPSK Transmission and Detection Techniques
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`247
`5.7.5 Offset QPSK
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`249
`5.7.6 1/4 QPSK
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`249
`5.7.7 1/4 QPSK Transmission Techniques
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`252
`5.7.8 7/4 QPSK Detection Techniques
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`254
`5.8 Constant Envelope Modulation
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`256
`5.8.1 Binary Frequency Shift Keying
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`259
`5.8.2 Minimum Shift Keying (MSK)
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`261
`5.8.3 Gaussian Minimum Shift Keying (GMSK)
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`267
`5.9 Combined Linear and Constant Envelope Modulation Techniques
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`267
`5.9.1 M-ary Phase Shift Keying (MPSK)
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`270
`5.9.2 M-ary Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM)
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`272
`5.9.3 M-ary Frequency Shift Keying (MFSK)
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`274
`5.10 Spread Spectrum Modulation Techniques
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`275
`5.10.1 Pseudo-noise (PN) Sequences
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`276
`5.10.2 Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DS-SS)
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`278
`5.10.3 Frequency Hopped Spread Spectrum (FH-SS)
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`280
`5.10.4 Performance of Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum
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`283
`5.10.5 Performance of Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum
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`284
`5.11 Modulation Performance in Fading and Multipath Channels
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`285
`5.11.1 Performance of Digital Modulation in Slow, Flat Fading Channels
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`289
`5.11.2 Digital Modulation in Frequency Selective Mobile Channels
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`290
`5.11.3 Performance of n/4 DQPSKin Fading and Interference
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`294
`5.12 Problems
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`299
`6 Equalization, Diversity, and Channel Coding
`299
`6.1 Introduction
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`300
`6.2 Fundamentals of Equalization
`303
`6.3 A Generic Adaptive Equalizer
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`307
`6.4 Equalizers in a Communications Receiver
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`308
`6.5 Survey of Equalization Techniques
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`310
`6,6 Linear Equalizers
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`312
`6.7 Nonlinear Equalization
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`313
`6.7.1 Decision Feedback Equalization (DFE)
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`315
`6.7.2 Maximum Likelihood Sequence Estimation (MLSE) Equalizer
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`316
`6.8 Algorithms for Adaptive Equalization
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`318
`6.8.1 Zero Forcing Algorithm
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`319
`6.8.2 Least Mean Square Algorithm
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`6.8.3 Recursive Least Squares Algorithm
`321
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`6.8.4 Summary of Algorithms
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`Contents
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`Contents
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`229
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`6.9 Fractionally Spaced Equalizers
`6.10 Diversity Techniques
`6.10.1 Derivation of Selection Diversity Improvement
`6.10.2 Derivation of Maximal Ratio Combining Improvement
`6.10.3 Practical Space Diversity Considerations
`6.10.4 Polarization Diversity
`6.10.5 Frequency Diversity
`6.10.6 Time Diversity
`6.11 RAKE Receiver
`6.12 Interleaving
`6.13 Fundamentals of Channel Coding
`6.14 Block Codes
`6.14.1 Examples of Block Codes
`6.14.2 Case Study of Reed-Solomon Codes
`6.15 Convolutional Codes
`6.15.1 Decoding of Convolutional Codes
`6.16 Coding Gain
`6.17 Trellis Coded Modulation
`6.18 Problems
`7 Speech Coding
`7.1 Introduction
`7.2 Characteristics of Speech Signals
`7.3 Quantization Techniques
`7.3.1 Uniform Quantization
`7.3.2 Nonuniform Quantization
`7.3.3 Adaptive Quantization
`7.3.4 Vector Quantization
`7.4 Adaptive Differential Pulse Code Modulation
`7.5 Frequency Domain Coding of Speech
`7.5.1 Sub-band Coding
`7.5.2 Adaptive Transform Coding
`7.6 Vocoders
`7.6.1 Channel Vocoders
`7.6.2 Formant Vocoders
`7.6.3 Cepstrum Vocoders
`7.6.4 Voice-Excited Vocoder
`7.7 Linear Predictive Coders
`7.7.1 LPC Vocoders
`7.7.2, Multi-pulse Excited LPC
`7.7.3 Code-Excited LPC
`7.7.4 Residual Excited LPC
`7.8 Choosing Speech Codecs for Mobile Communications
`7.9 The GSM Codec
`7.10 The USDC Codec
`7.11 Performance Evaluation of Speech Coders
`7.12 Problems
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`323
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`ax
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`Contents
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`416
`416
`417
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`8 Multiple Access Techniques for Wireless Communications
`8.1 Introduction
`8.1.1 Introduction to Multiple Access
`8.2 Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA)
`8.3 TimeDivision Multiple Access (TDMA)
`8.4 Spread Spectrum Multiple Access
`8.4.1 Frequency Hopped Multiple Access (FHMA)
`8.4.2 Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)
`8.4.3 Hybrid Spread Spectrum Techniques
`8.5 Space Division Multiple Access (SDMA)
`8.6 Packet Radio
`8.6.1 Packet Radio Protocols
`8.6.2 Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA)Protocols
`8.6.3 Reservation Protocols
`8.6.4 Capture Effect in Packet Radio
`8.7 Capacity of Cellular Systems
`8.7.1 Capacity of Cellular CDMA
`8.7.2 Capacity of CDMA with Multiple Cells
`8.7.3 Capacity of Space Division Multiple Access
`8.8 Problems
`9 Wireless Networking
`9,1 Introduction to Wireless Networks
`9,2 Differences Between Wireless and Fixed Telephone Networks
`9,2,1 The Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN)
`9.2.2 Limitations in Wireless Networking
`9.2.3 Merging Wireless Networks and the PSTN
`9.3 Development of Wireless Networks
`9.3.1 First Generation Wireless Networks
`9.3.2 Second Generation Wireless Networks
`9.3.3 Third Generation Wireless Networks
`9.4 Fixed Network Transmission Hierarchy
`9,5 Traffic Routing in Wireless Networks
`9.5.1 Circuit Switching
`9.5.2 Packet Switching
`9.5.3 The X.25 Protocol
`9.6 Wireless Data Services
`9.6.1 Cellular Digital Packet Data (CDPD)
`9.6.2 Advanced Radio Data Information Systems (ARDIS)
`9.6.3 RAM Mobile Data (RMD)
`9.7 Common Channel Signaling (CCS)
`9.7.1 The Distributed Central Switching Office for CCS
`9.8 Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN)
`9.8.1 Broadband ISDN and ATM
`9.9 Signaling System No. 7 (SS7)
`9.9.1 Network Services Part (NSP) of $87
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`395
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`404
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` 9.9.2 The $87 User Part
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`9,9,3 Signaling Traffic in $$7
`9,9.4 $87 Services
`9.9.5 Performance of 887
`9.10 An example of SS7 — Global Cellular Network Interoperability
`9.11 Personal Communication Services/Networks (PCS/PCN)
`9.11.1 Packet vs. Circuit switching for PCN
`9.11.2 Cellular Packet-Switched Architecture
`9.12 Protocols for Network Access
`9,12,1 Packet Reservation Multiple Access (PRMA)
`9.13 Network Databases
`9.13.1 Distributed Database for Mobility Management
`9.14 Universal Mobile Telecommunication System (UMTS)
`9.15 Summary
`10 Wireless Systems and Standards
`10.1 AMPS and ETACS
`10.1.1 AMPS and ETACS System Overview
`10.1.2 Call Handling in AMPS and ETACS
`10.1.3 AMPS and ETACSAir Interface
`10.1.4 N-AMPS
`10.2 United States Digital Cellular (IS-54)
`10.2.1 USDC Radio Interface
`10.2.2 United States Digital Cellular Derivatives (IS-94 and IS-136)
`10.3 Global System for Mobile (GSM)
`10.3.1 GSM Services and Features
`10.3.2 GSM System Architecture
`10.3.3 GSM Radio Subsystem
`10.3.4 GSM Channel Types
`10.3.5 Example of a GSM Call
`10.3.6 Frame Structure for GSM
`10.3.7 Signal Processing in GSM
`10.4 CDMADigital Cellular Standard (IS-95)
`10.4.1 Frequency and Channel Specifications
`10.4.2 Forward CDMA Channel
`10.4.3 Reverse CDMA Channel
`10.4.4 IS-95 with 14.4 kbps Speech Coder [ANS95]
`10,5 CT2 Standard For Cordless Telephones
`10.5.1 CT2 Services and Features
`10.5.2 The CT2 Standard
`10.6 Digital European Cordless Telephone (DECT)
`10.6.1 Features and Characteristics
`10.6.2 DECT Architecture
`10.6.3 DECT Functional Concept
`10.6.4 DECT Radio Link
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`538
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`xii
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`10.7 PACS — Personal Access Communication Systems
`10.7.1 PACS System Architecture
`10.7.2 PACS RadioInterface
`10.8 Pacific Digital Cellular (PDC)
`10.9 Personal Handyphone System (PHS)
`10.10 U.S. PCS and ISM Bands
`10.11 U.S. Wireless Cable Television
`10.12 Summary ofStandards Throughoutthe World
`10,13 Problems
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`Contents
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`540
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`APPENDICES
`
`555
`A Trunking Theory
`556
`A.1 Erlang B
`556
`A.1.1 Derivation of Erlang B
`561
`A.2 Erlang C
`561
`A.2.1 Derivation of Erlang C
`565
`B Noise Figure Calculations for Link Budgets
`569
`C Gaussian Approximations for Spread Spectrum CDMA
`57]
`C.1 The Gaussian Approximation
`582
`C.2 The Improved Gaussian Approximation(IGA)
`C3 A Simplified Expression for the Improved Gaussian Approximation (SEIGA) 585
`D Q,erf & erfc Functions
`593
`D.1 The Q-Function
`593
`D.2 Theerf anderfc functions
`595
`E Mathematical Tables
`599
`F Abbreviations and Acronyms
`607
`G References
`617635
`
`Index
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`Contents
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`539
`540
`541
`543
`544
`544
`547
`548
`551
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`A
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`555
`556
`556
`561
`561
`565
`569
`577
`582
`on (SEIGA) 585
`593
`593
`595
`599
`607
`617
`635
`
`Preface
`
`T.. purpose of this text is to initiate the
`newcomer to cellular radio and wireless personal communications, one of the
`fastest growing fields in the engineering world, Technical concepts which are at
`the core of design, implementation,research, and invention of wireless commu-
`nication systems are presented in an order that is conducive to understanding
`general concepts, as well as those specific to particular cellular and personal
`communication systems and standards.This text is based upon my experiences
`as an educator, researcher, and consultant, and is modeled from an academic
`course developed for electrical engineering students as well as a self-study
`course for practicing engineers and technicians, developed at the request of the
`Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE). References to journal
`articles are used liberally throughout this text to enable the interested reader to
`delve into additional reading that is always required to master any field. How-
`ever, for handbook or classroom use, or for those whofind it difficult to pursue
`outside reading, this text has been written as a complete,self-contained teaching
`and reference book. Numerous examples and problems have been provided to
`help the readersolidify the material.
`This book has been designed for the student or practicing engineer whois
`already familiar with technical concepts such as probability, communication the-
`ory, and basic electromagnetics. However,
`like the wireless communications
`industry itself, this book combines material from many different technical disci-
`plines, so it is unlikely that any one person will have had introductory courses
`for all of the topics covered. To accommodate a wide range of backgrounds,
`important concepts throughout the text are developed from first principles, so
`that readers learn the foundationsof wireless communications. This approach
`
`xiii
`
`
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`how each access method can accommodatealarge number of mobile users and
`
`ew
`xIV
`makes it possible to use this book as a handbook within industry, or as a teach-
`ing tool in a classroom setting.
`The material and chapter sequence in this text have been adapted from an
`entry-level graduate course whichI first taught in 1991 at the Virginia Polytech-
`nic Institute and State University. Chapter 1 demonstrates the rapid growth of
`cellular radio throughout the world and provides a glimpse into the future.
`Chapter 2 coverscellular radio concepts such as frequency reuse and handoff,
`which are at the core of providing wireless communicationservice to subscribers
`on the move using limited radio spectrum. Chapter 2 also demonstrates how
`interference between mobiles and base stations affects the capacity of cellular
`systems. Chapter 3 presents radio propagation path loss and log-normal shadow-
`ing and describes different ways to model and predict the large-scale effects of
`radio propagation in many operating environments. Chapter 4 covers small-scale
`propagation effects such as fading, time delay spread, and Doppler spread, and
`describes how to measure and model the impact that signal bandwidth and
`motion have on the instantaneous received signal through the multipath chan-
`nel. Radio wave propagation has historically been the most difficult problem to
`analyze and designfor, since unlike a wired communication system which has a
`constant, stationary transmission channel (i.e., a wired path), radio channels are
`random and undergo shadowing and multipath fading, particularly when one of
`the terminals is in motion.
`Chapter 5 provides extensive coverage of the most common analog and dig-
`ital modulation techniques used in mobile communications and demonstrates
`trade-offs that must be made in selecting a modulation method, Issues such as
`receiver complexity, modulation and demodulation implementation, bit error
`rate analysis for fading channels, and spectral occupancy are presented. Chan-
`nel coding, adaptive equalization, and antenna diversity concepts are presented
`in Chapter 6. In portable radio systems where people communicate while walk-
`ing or driving, these methods may be used individually or in tandem to improve
`the quality (that is, reduce the bit error rate) of digital mobile radio communica-
`tions in the presenceof fading and noise.
`Chapter 7 provides an introduction to speech coding. In the past decade
`there has been remarkable progress in decreasing the needed data rate of high
`quality digitized speech, which enables wireless system designers to match end-
`user services to network architectures. Principles which have driven the devel-
`opment of adaptive pulse code modulation and linear predictive coding tech-
`niques are presented, and how these techniques are used to evaluate speech
`quality in existing and proposedcellular, cordless, and personal communication
`systems are discussed. Chapter 8 introduces time, frequency, and code division
`multiple access, as well as more recent multiple access techniques such as
`packet reservation and space division multiple access. Chapter 8 also describes
`
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`_or as a teach-
`
`lapted from an
`ginia Polytech-
`apid growth of
`ito the future.
`e and handoff,
`: to subscribers
`ionstrates how
`city of cellular
`vormal shadow-
`scale effects of
`rers small-scale
`ler spread, and
`sandwidth and
`qultipath chan-
`eult problem to
`am which has a
`lio channels are
`rly when one of
`
`analog and dig-
`d demonstrates
`Issues such as
`ation, bit error
`resented. Chan-
`'s are presented
`‘ate while walk-
`dem to improve
`dio communica-
`
`the past decade
`ata rate of high
`rs to match end-
`riven the devel-
`ive coding tech-
`evaluate speech
`communication
`nd code division
`iniques such as
`8 also describes
`
`nobile users and
`
`demonstrates how multiple access impacts capacity and the network infrastruc-
`ture of a cellular system. Chapter 9 describes networkingconsiderations for wide
`area wireless communication systems, and presents practical networking
`approaches that are in use or have been proposed for future wireless systems.
`Chapter 10 unites all of the material from the first nine chapters by describing
`and comparing the major existing and proposedcellular, cordless, and personal
`communication systems throughoutthe world. The trade-offs madein the design
`and implementation of wireless personal communications systems are illumi-
`nated in this final chapter. The compilation of the major wireless standards
`makes Chapter 10 particularly useful as a single source of informationfor a wide
`range of systems.
`Appendices which cover trunking theory, noise calculations, and the Gauss-
`ian approximation for spread spectrum code division systems provide details for
`those interested in solving practical wireless communications problems.
`For industry use, Chapters 1—4 and8 will benefit working engineers in the
`cellular system design and radio frequency (RF) testing/maintenance/measure-
`ment areas. Chapters 5—7 are tailored for modem designers and digital signal
`processing (DSP) engineers new to wireless. Chapters 9 and 10 should have
`broad appeal to network operators and managers,as well as working engineers.
`To use this text at the undergraduatelevel, the instructor may wish to con-
`centrate on Chapters 1—5, or Chapters 1—4, and8, leaving the other chapters
`for treatment in a second semester undergraduate course or a graduate level
`course. Alternatively, traditional undergraduate courses on communications or
`network theory may find in Chapters1, 2, 3, 5, 7, 8, and 9 useful material that
`can be inserted easily into the standard curriculum. In using this text at the
`graduate level, I have been successful in covering most of the material in Chap-
`ters 1—8 during a standard half-year semester. In Chapters 9 and 10, I have
`attempted to cover important but rarely compiled information on practical net-
`work implementations and worldwide standards.
`Without the help and ingenuity of several former Virginia Tech graduate
`students, this text could not have been written. I am pleased to acknowledgethe
`help and encouragementof Rias Muhamed, Varun Kapoor, Kevin Saldanha, and
`Anil Doradla — students I met in class while teaching the course Cellular Radio
`and Personal Communications. Kevin Saldanha also provided camera ready
`copy for this text (which turned out to be no small task!). The assistance of these
`students in compiling and editing materials for several chapters of this text was
`invaluable, and they were a source of constant encouragement throughout the
`project. Others who offered helpful suggestions, and whose research efforts are
`reflected in portionsof this text, include Scott Seidel, Joe Liberti, Dwayne Haw-
`baker, Marty Feuerstein, Yingie Li, Ken Blackard, Victor Fung, Weifang Huang,
`Prabhakar Koushik, Orlando Landron, Francis Dominique, and Greg Bump. Zhi-
`
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`vi
`gang Rong, Jeff Laster, Michael Buehrer, Keith Brafford, and Sandip Sandhu
`also provided useful suggestions and helpful reviews of early drafts.
`This text benefits greatly from practical input provided by several industry
`reviewers. Roman Zaputowycz of Bell Atlantic Mobile Systems, Mike Bamburak
`of McCaw Communications, David McKay of Allen Telecom Group, Jihad Her-
`mes of Cellular One, Robert Rowe of AirTouch Communications, William Gard-
`ner of Qualcomm, and John Snapp of Blue Ridge Cellular provided extremely
`valuable input as to what materials were most important, and how they could
`best be presented for students and practicing engineers. Marty Feuerstein of
`U.S. West NewVector and Mike Lord of Cellular One provided comprehensive
`reviews which have greatly improved the manuscript. The technical staff at
`Grayson Electronics also provided feedback and practical suggestions during the
`developmentofthis text.
`From the academicperspective, a numberoffaculty in the wireless commu-
`nications field provided useful suggestions which I readily incorporated. These
`reviewers include Prof. J. Keith Townsend of North Carolina State University
`and Prof. William H. Tranterof the University of Missouri-Rolla. Professors Jef-
`frey Reed and Brian Woernerof Virginia Tech also provided excellent recommen-
`dations
`from a
`teaching perspective.
`I am grateful
`for
`the invaluable
`contributions fromall ofthese individuals.
`I am pleased to acknowledge the support of the National Science Founda-
`tion, the Advanced Research Project Agency, and the many sponsors and friends
`of the Mobile & Portable Radio Research Group, who have supported our
`research and educationalactivities in wireless communications since 1990. It is
`from the excellent faculty at Purdue University, particularly my advisor, Clare
`D. McGillem, that I formally learned about communications and how to build a
`research program.
`I consider myself fortunate to have been one of the many
`graduate students who was stimulated to pursue a dual career in engineering
`and education upon graduation from Purdue.
`Finally, it is a pleasure to acknowledge my family and students, who put up
`with my preoccupation on this project, Barbara Coburn and Jill Cals of the
`IEEE, who championed the IEEE self-study course on the same subject, and
`Karen Gettman and Camille Trentacoste of Prentice Hall, who commissioned
`this work and helped me bring this text to you.
`
`Theodore S. Rappaport
`
`a x
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`nication Systems
`
`C
`
`H
`
`
`
`A
`
`P
`
`T
`
`CE
`
`R
`
`2
`
`The Cellular Concept —
`System Design
`Fundamentals
`
`T.. design objective of early mobile radio
`
`systems was to achieve a large coverage area by using a single, high powered
`transmitter with an antenna mounted on a tall tower. While this approach
`achieved very good coverage, it also meant that it was impossible to reuse those
`same frequencies throughout the system, since any attempts to achieve fre-
`quency reuse would result in interference. For example, the Bell mobile system
`in New York City in the 1970s could only support a maximum of twelve simulta-
`neous calls over a thousand square miles [Cal88]. Faced with the fact that gov-
`ernment regulatory agencies could not make spectrum allocations in proportion
`to the increasing demand for mobile services, it became imperative to restruc-
`ture the radio telephone system to achieve high capacity with limited radio spec-
`trum, while at the same time covering very large areas.
`
`2.1
`
`Introduction
`The cellular concept was a major breakthrough in solving the problem of
`spectral congestion and user capacity. It offered very high capacity in a limited
`Spectrum allocation without any major technological changes. The cellular con-
`cept is a system level idea which calls for replacing a single, high powertrans-
`mitter (large cell) with many low power
`transmitters (small cells), each
`providing coverage to only a smallportion of the service area. Each base station
`18 allocated a portion of the total number of channels available to the entire sys-
`tem, and nearby basestations are assigned different groups of channels so that
`all the available channels are assigned to a relatively small number of neighbor-
`ing base stations. Neighboring base stations are assigned different groups of
`channels so that the interference between base stations (and the mobile users
`
`25
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` 26
`
`Ch. 2° The Cellular Concept — System Design Fundamentals
`r control) is minimized. By systematically spacing base stations and
`under thei
`t, the available channels are distrib-
`their channel groups throughout a marke
`d as many times as nec-
`uted throughout the geographic region and may be reuse
`essary, so long as the interference between co-channel stations is kept below
`acceptablelevels.
`As the demand for service increases (i.e., as more channels are needed
`within a particular market), the number of base stations may be increased
`(along with a corresponding decrease in transmitter power to avoid added inter-
`ference), thereby providing additional radio capacity with no additional increase
`in radio spectrum. This fundamental principle is the foundation for all modern
`wireless communication systems, since it enables a fixed number of channels to
`serve an arbitrarily large number of subscribers by reusing the channels
`throughout the coverage region. Furthermore, the cellular concept allows every
`piece of subscriber equipment within a country or continent to be manufactured
`with the same set of channels, so that any mobile may be used anywhere within
`
`the region.
`
`2.2 Frequency Reuse
`Cellular radio systems rely on an intelligent allocation and reuse of chan-
`nels throughout a coverage region [Oet83]. Each cellular base station is allocated
`a group of radio channels to be used within a small geographic area called a cell.
`Base stations in adjacentcells are assigned channel groups which contain com-
`pletely different channels than neighboringcells. The base station antennas are
`designed to achieve the desired coverage within the particular cell. By limiting
`the coverage area to within the boundaries of a cell, the same group of channels
`may be usedto cover different cells that are separated from one another by dis-
`tances large enough to keep interference levels within tolerable limits. The
`design process ofselecting and allocating channel groups for all of the cellular
`base stations within a system is called frequency reuse or frequency planning
`[Mac79].Figure 2.1 illustrates the concept of cellular frequency reuse, where cells
`labeled with the same letter use the same group of channels. The frequency
`reuse plan is overlaid upon a map to indicate where different frequency channels
`are used. The hexagonalcell shape shown in Figure 2.1 is conceptual and is a
`simplistic model of the radio coverage for each base station, but it has been uni-
`versally adopted since the hexagon permits easy and manageable analysis of a
`cellular system. The actual radio coverage of a cell is known asthe footprint and
`is determined from field measurements or propagation prediction models.
`Although the real footprint is amorphous in nature, a regular cell shape is
`needed for systematic system design and adaptation for future growth. While it
`might seem natural to choose a circle to represent the coverage area of a base
`station, adjacent circles can not be overlaid upon a map without leaving gaps oF
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
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`Frequency Reuse
`
`a7
`
`Figure 2.1
`Dlustration of the cellular frequency reuse concept. Cells with the sameletter use the same set of
`frequencies. A cell cluster is outlined in bold and replicated over the cove