NLEHNW—NHLL LLLLLLflPEfllA LL '
`
`NNNEENNB
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`LLLLLLLL
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`IYIIIEHAWHIEEEEEYNEEYEUPEfllllflE
`
`NEIN RING
`
`SEEUNI] EHIEIEIN
`
`Sybil P. Parker
`
`Editor in Chief
`
`McGraw-Hill. Inc.
`Bogota
`Auckland
`San Francisco Washington. DC.
`New York
`Caracas
`Lisbon
`London Madrid Mexico City Milan Montreal
`New Delhi
`San Juan
`Singapore
`Sydney
`Tokyo
`Toronto
`
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`

`Most of the material in this volume has been published previously in the
`McGRAW-HILL ENCYCLOPEDIA OF SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY.
`.
`Seventh Edition. copyright ’9 I992 by McGraw—Hill. Inc.. and in the
`McGRAW-HILL YEARBOOK OF SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY. copyright
`© 1992. l99i. by McGraw—Hill. Inc. All rights reserved.
`
`McGRAW-HILL ENCYCLOPEDIA OF ENGINEERING, Second Edition.
`Copyright © 1993 by McGraw-Hill. Inc. All rights reserved. Primed in the
`United States of America. Except as permitted under the United States
`Copyright Act of |976. no part of this publication may be reproduced or
`distributed in any form or by any means. or stored in a database or retrieval
`system. without the prior written permission of the publisher.
`
`23456189
`
`DOWIDOW
`
`987654
`
`Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication data
`
`MeGraw-Hill encyclopedia of engineering 1 Sybil P. Parker, editor in
`chief. — 2nd ed.
`p.
`cm.
`Includes bibliographical references and index.
`ISBN 0-0?—05l392-9
`
`l. Engineering—Encyclopedias.
`Inc.
`TA9.M36
`[993
`620‘ .003—dc20
`
`ISBN U-DY-USLB‘IB-nl
`
`1, Parker. Sybil P.
`
`ll, McGraw-I—Iill
`
`92-43106
`CIP
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`

`The amplitude of the at: output voltage [Gunt-
`shapcd curve WhCI‘I plOllCd flgutnm CUR: PUStljunii tr
`phase angle abruptly reverses h}.
`'30.: at mull
`point. When the bottom of the “gum is
`“link”
`in claser detail.
`It
`Is seen that
`the outpul “Ulla :L‘ll
`balance is not exactly zero. The small reg-muffin
`voltage consists of higher harmtimg ol’ the '“PLIt til"
`quency. as well as a fundamental 'rsttucncy (first
`nent 90 degrees out of phase tcallcd the qmmu.
`component).
`‘
`.
`rt
`Electronic signal conditioning is, Cflntm
`Only cm
`ployed to eliminate the residual and In
`l'l'lttltc "it
`
`
`
`constant ac
`voltage input
`Fig. 4. E-shaped differential transformer. (After P. I.
`O'Ea'ggins. Basic Insunmentatr'on, MeGraw-Elll. 1956}
`
`transducer usable with standard dc instrumentation
`The electronic circuit consists of an ac oscillator tru-
`
`ricr generator) to drive the input windings. plus aide
`modulator and an amplifier to convert the output Il’llLl
`dc. The microelectronics can be built
`into the trott-
`t'ormer housing. and the resulting package Is sold as
`a dc-LV DT. S‘s-s mesrontres.
`_
`Gerald Watt
`
`Bibliography. W. R. Ahrendt and C. J. Savant. 1."
`.S'entotuecltotu‘sm Prat-rice- 1960: E. O. Doeheim.
`Measurement Sgt-atrium. 3d ed..
`l982: E. E. Hcrctt.
`Handbook of Measurement and Control.
`l9'lo.
`
`H D
`
`igital computer
`tutti
`Any device for performing mathematical can“.
`on numbers represented digitally; b)’ “lemm‘ an:
`device for manipulating symbols accordlllgw a m.
`tailed procedure or recipe. The class 0f .d'gllal cat“!
`puters includes microcomputers. convemwnal ad int
`machines and calculators. digital Controllers used ‘
`industrial processing and manufacturing c’pemnmii-tl
`store—and-forward data communicallflIn eqmpmf
`.
`and electronic data—processing 53’5“?"‘5'
`(l
`[9'
`In this article emphasis is on elfi‘ln‘mlC store flier
`gram digital computers. These mittfl‘i'“:5 SIG-n:
`llls of
`l‘flll)’ many thousands of numbers of ”lbw-"anti 5c
`information, and control and execute 50mph“? [Fir
`qu¢nces of numerical calculations and “mgr Tildliru"
`I:‘llloos on this information in accordance “'"h In‘sn 0i
`“9'15 also stored in the machine The first 5cml: F‘”
`this article discusses digital system fundamenifl fill“
`Viet’lllng‘thc components and building bloc“
`'
`Whl§h digital systems are conStruclEd-
`u
`section intrOdLices the stored~progfim1 generfll'chlfl.
`Computer in more detail and indicate5 “1“ Ch“
`
`|PR2018—01474
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`Apple Inc. EX1022 Page 4
`
`oulttilllt
`
`
`
`
`
`spring
`
`/.
`L'. E.
`Fin 3 Houston-rubs We transducer employing a linear
`'
`Eat transformer {INDT}. {after
`Eifigmk ofMeasurement and Control. Subunit:
`Engineering. HIS)
`
`is zero. This rs the balance of null WS'l'm-
`output
`When the core is displaced from the null paint. "7'3
`two secondary voltages are no longer alike and the
`transformer produces an output voltage. WM! proper
`design.
`the output voltage varies linearl)l “"0" core
`position over a small range. Motion of the core in the
`opposite direction produces a similar effect With IBU
`phase reversal of the alternating output voltage.
`trans‘
`The principal advantages of the differential
`former over other displacement transducers. such as
`the resistance potentiometer. are absence of contacts
`and infinite resolution. No friction is introduced by
`the measurement. and rnOVement smaller than a mi—
`croinch (25 nanometers} can be sensed. The separa-
`tion between coil and core makes the differential
`transformer useful in difficult and dangerous environ—
`ments. Stability of the null makes it ideal as a null
`sensor
`in self~balancing devices and servomecha-
`nisms. Typical applications are machine tool
`inspec—
`tion and gaging. pressure measurement (Fig. 2), fig].
`uid level control.
`load cells. and gyroscopic infill-u-
`ments.
`
`'The linear variable differential transformer [LVDT;
`FIg-_3l is the commercially prevalent fan-.1 A rota
`:egsrio‘;(1:65:32: manufactured. The E—pickoff (Fig. 4.}
`.
`ice. [is linearity is not as good. and its
`principal‘use is as a null sensor. Both translational
`and rotational E-pickoffs are made.
`
`coil 1. accondary-ck
`
`primary coil
`\\
`\
`
`_$
`r;
`/ 0| 2. Secondary
`
`
`
`
`m acwuage
`source (constant)
`
`lfiSflélftiflg
`m
`
`difference volta e
`output Esec : —gEse=.2
`
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`

`

`final section traces the history of stored—program dig-
`ital computer systems and shows how the require-
`ments of new applications and the development of
`new technologies have influenced system design.
`DietrnL SYSTEM FunuiiiitEttTALs
`
`A digital system can be considered from many
`points of view. At the lowest level it
`is a network of
`wires and mechanical parts whose voltages and posi-
`lions convey coded information. At another level it is
`0 collection of logical elements. each of which cni-
`bodies certain rules. but which in combination can
`carry out very complex functions. At a still higher
`level. a digital system is an arrangement of functional
`units or building blocks which read (input). write
`(output). store. and manipulate infonnation.
`Cuties. Numbers are represented within a digital
`computer by means of circuits that distinguish various
`discrete electrical signals on wires inside the machine.
`Theoretically. a signal on a wire could be made to
`represent any one ol‘ several different digits by means
`of the magnitude olthc signal. [For example. a signal
`from t] to l V could represent the digit zero. a signal
`between I and 3 V could represent the digit one. and
`so on up to a signal between 9 and ID V.
`the digit
`nine.) In practice.
`the most reliable and economical
`circuit elements distinguish between only two signal
`levels. so that a signal between 0 and 5 V mayI rep-
`resent
`the digit zero and a signal between 5 and ID
`V,
`the digit one. These two—valued signals make it
`necessary to represent numbers and symbols using a
`corresponding base-two or binary system. Table 1
`lists the first 20 binary numbers and their decimal
`equivalents.
`Data are stored and manipulated within a digital
`computer in units called words. The binary digits
`(called bits], which make up a word. may represent
`either a binary number or a collection of binary—coded
`alphanumeric characters. For example. the two-letter
`word “it" may be stored in a
`I6—bit computer word
`as follows. making use of the code shown in Table 2:
`DIDOIUOIOIOIOIUU
`
`The computer word merely contains a binary pattern
`
`Lyflfiim tram-0 to 10 by decimal and
`
`
`
`
`Binary numberbeam mmtier
`
`
`
`I.sameness-sessionstie-Sic Itilt-l.5
`
`
`
`
`
`
`l;
`
`“awra-m.nwmvs
`
`‘5'hfi."-fi15‘8“!"ba.“'E
`
`Digital computer
`
`285
`
`Table 2. Intuition-amend alphabetic 0000 tor hlnary
`representation of letters
`
`11000001
`11000010
`01000011
`11000100
`01000101
`01000110
`11000111
`11001000
`“001001
`01001010
`11001011
`01001100
`11001101
`
`A
`B
`0
`0
`E
`F
`G
`H
`I
`.1
`K
`L
`M
`
`
`
`11001110
`01001111
`11010000
`01010001
`01010010
`11010011
`01010100
`11010101
`11010110
`01010111
`01011000
`11011001
`1101-1010
`
`N
`0
`P
`0
`'Ft
`5
`I
`u
`11"
`at
`)1
`1*
`2
`
`of alternating l's and 0’s. and it is up to the computer
`user to determine whether that word should be inter—
`preted as the English word "it" or as the decimal
`number 18.772.
`
`Logical circuit elements. Two kinds of logical cir-
`cuits are used in the design and construction of digital
`computers; decision elements and memory elements.
`A typical decision element provides a binary output
`as a function of two or more binary inputs. The A010
`circuit.
`for example. has two inputs and an output
`which is ] only when both inputs are l. A memory
`clement stores a single bit of information and is set to
`the 1 state or reset to the 0 state. depending on the
`signals on its input lines. And because such a circuit
`can be caused alternately to store 0's and l’s from
`time to time. a memory element is commonly called
`a flip-flop.
`that are
`These two basic logical elements are all
`required to construct the most elaborate and complex
`digital arithmetic and control circuits. A simple ex—
`ample of such a circuit is shown in Fig. I. Here the
`object is to perform a simple binary count. as shown
`in the table at the bottom of Fig. i. As long as control
`signal C is equal to l.
`the counting continues. When
`the control
`input
`is 0.
`the counter is to remain in
`whatever state it had last counted to. Two flip—flops
`are used.
`labeled GI and Q2. and will be made to
`count
`through the sequence 0.1.2.3,0J,
`.
`.
`.
`. To
`understand the design. it is necessary to introduce one
`more concept.
`the complementary output of a flip—
`llop. Each fltp~ftop generally has two output wires.
`which are always of opposite polarity. When flip‘fiop
`121 is storing a I. output Q] is; and the complemen—
`tary output (which is labeled Q] and pronounced Q_I
`bar) is 0. When the flip—flop contains a 0.
`the {21
`output is l and the Q1 output is 0.
`To analyze the circuit. note first that. when control
`input C is 0. the outputs of all AND gates are t] and.
`because the reset and set inputs to both flip-flops are
`D. the flip-flops will remain in whatever state they last
`reached. Now suppose that Q] and 02 both contain 0
`and that the control
`input becomes 1. While Hip-flop
`Q2 contains a 0,
`its Q3 output is also 0 and AND gate
`number 1 (labeled AND It is effectively turned off so
`that the reset and set inputs to Q1 are both 0. Thus
`flip—Hop Qt will remain in the 0 state. For the same
`reason AND gate 4 will also be turned off, and the
`reset input to flip-flop Q2 will be 0_.__Howevcr, front
`flip—flop Q2 complementary output Q2 will be in the
`1 state. and (while the control input is I) AND gate 5
`will be turned on and the set input to 02 will be 1.
`Flip—flop (22 will thus be turned on by the first clock
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`

`286
`
`Digital computer
`
`control {C}
`
`
`
`Binary cottnt:
`
`Logic equations:
`
`01
`O
`D
`
`1
`1
`
`0
`0
`
`oz
`0
`1
`
`0
`1
`
`0
`1
`
`so1=c-Qz-oi
`
`R01 F C ' 02‘ 01
`
`3oz = c. a:
`
`Roz = c- 92
`
`Note: C- 02 means BAND 02
`
`Pig. 1. Simple dig-ital counting dlcuit.
`
`pulse to occur after C is turned on; and from one
`clock pulse time to the next
`the two tlilHlflPS “'l“
`change from the I0.0l state to the (0.” State A carc-
`lul review of the indicated circuits will Show that lht‘
`counter will indeed go through the count sequence its
`shown. as long as the control
`input is
`l. The logic
`equations in Fig.
`I represent another way 01‘ describ-
`ing the circuit and may be used in place of the more
`cumbersome diagram.
`Physical components. The logical elements de—
`scribed in the paragraphs above are the fundamental
`conceptual components used in virtually all digital
`systems. The actual physical components. which were
`used to realize conceptual gates and flip-flops in some
`specific piece of equipment are dependent on the sta—
`tus of electronic technology at the time the equipment
`was designed In the IQSOS the earliest commercial
`computers used vacuum tubes. resistors, and capaci_
`tors as components. A flip-flop typically required a
`dozen or more such components in these first—gener-
`ation computers. Between the late [9505 and middle
`[9605. solid-state transistors and diodes replaced the
`vacuum tubes. and the resulting second-generation
`systems were considerably more reli'
`‘
`.
`able th
`=
`first-generation predecessors;
`th
`an lhur
`
`flop.
`
`systems to provide much more
`nent than was possible with th
`e first- or second-gen-
`oration technology. Since the
`mid-19605 integrated
`circun technology has consist
`ently tmprovcd, and
`
`t‘nlitlrl
`
`largo—scale-inlegration (LSlt citcuns c
`typical
`thousands of_fltp-fiops and gates
`System hullding hlPFkS. On a completely differs“
`conceptual level. a dlgllfl! Ct‘lhptltcr can be ”Eartha
`as being composed of Iuncltonnl.
`system builtlm
`blocks. containing (amOng other tlnngsi suhusenf
`blics of the fundamental logical Cutltptmcnls, A mm:
`purer viewed at
`this level may lll.‘ described in an
`oversimplified Fashion by the diagram of Fig, 2_ The
`computation and control block (often called the Etn-
`mll processing Ltnll. or CPtJ} is constructed entirely
`of logical elements of the kind described abovc‘ 111%
`main memory. which may store Irom a low thousand
`to several million binary digits. and the inpuuuuipm
`and auxiliary memory devices (the so-cullcd pcnph‘
`oral equipment) are specialized dC’VtL‘L‘S that are avail
`able over a range of speeds and operating character-
`istics.
`Main memory is a building block capable nl'stnnng
`data or instructions in bulk for use by the computation]
`and control portion of the computer. The lmpnnnm
`characteristics of a memory are capacity. access ltmc_
`and cost. Capacity is the amount of dam that the com.
`puter can store. Access time is the maximum interval
`between a request
`to the memory for data and the
`moment when the memory can provide that dam. Cw
`is measured by dividing total memory cost by tn;
`number of bits stored. For first—generation system.
`designers used a variety of technologtcs in realizing
`main memory: mercury delay lines, electrostatic stur-
`agc tubes. and magnetic drums all appeared in various
`products. But second- and third-generation systems
`were almost exclusively built using magnetic tort
`main memories. Staning in the early I97tls. the inte
`grated circuit memory was introduced. and is now the
`most widely used technology.
`lnputtoutput and auxiliary memory peripherals rcp-
`rcsent
`the other major computer building blocks.
`Equipment is now and has from the beginning been
`available ['or
`feeding information to the compute!
`from paper tape and punched cards. and for recent"?
`data from the computer and printing it. or puncltlng “
`on tape cards. But in the intervening years. dcslgnm
`have PmVidcd additional output devices which timid
`c(imputcr data on microfilm. or plot data on E”???
`or use data to control physical devices such 35 “all“
`or rhcostats. They have also designed input Ctt'J‘P'
`
`
`
`computation
`and
`control
`
`main
`memory
`
`
`
`
`
`
`nput
`
`output
`
`i
`
`
`
`.
`.
`auxtltary
`memory
`(peri pharals)
`
`Fig. 2‘ 31““ diam of a digital computer.
`
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`

`meat which feeds the computer data from laboratory
`instruments. and from devices which scan documents
`and “read" printed characters, Data can be transmit-
`ted to and from the computer over ordinary telephone
`lines. and a wide variety of devices generally called
`terminals make it possible for people to send data [0‘
`or receive requested data from. a computer system
`located hundreds or thousands of ntiles away.
`The earliest auxiliary memory equipment recorded
`data on reels of magnetic tape. Magnetic tape units
`are still very widely used. for although they are slow
`in comparison to the operating Speeds of modern
`computers—4| typically takes 2—30 min to read all the
`data on at 2400-11 (732~m) reel of tape. depending on
`the speed of the tape unit—they matte it possible to
`store large volumes of data at low cost by virtue of
`the low cost of the tape itself. The other widely used
`auxiliary memory devices are the magnetic disk and
`drum. both of which Provide faster access to data Ihan
`do the tape units. but at higher cost per bit of data
`stored.
`
`Stance Pnocmn COMPUTER
`
`Components and building blocks described in the
`preceding paragraphs could he organized in a multi~
`rude of different ways. The first practical electronic
`computers. constructed during the latter part of World
`War 11. were designed with the specific purpose of
`computing special mathematical functions. They did
`their jobs very well. but even while they were under
`construction. engineers and scientists had come to re-
`alize that it was pOSsible to organize a digital com-
`puter in such a way that
`it was not oriented toward
`some particular computation. and could in fact cam;
`out any calculation desired and defined by the user
`The basic machine organization invented and con-
`structed at
`that
`time was the stored—program com-
`puter. and it continues to be the fundamental basis for
`each of the hundreds of thousands of computing sys-
`tems in use today.
`It has also become a system com-
`ponent. since the microcomputer is simply a stored
`Fromm computer on a single integrated-circutt chip.
`The concept of
`the stored-program computer
`is
`simple and can be described with reference to Fig. 2.
`Main memory contains.
`in addition to data and the
`results of intermediate computations. a set of instruc-
`tions (or orders. or commands. as they are sometimes.
`Fallfll); these specify how the computer is to operate
`in solving some particular problem. The computation
`and control section reads these instructions from the
`”1331“”! {me by one and performs the indicated oper-
`ations on the specified data. The instructions can
`control
`the reading of data from input or auxiliary
`"Emory peripherals. and {when the prescribed corn-
`putations are completed) can send the result to auxil-
`Iary memory. or to output devices where it may be
`printed. punched. displayed, plotted. and so forth.
`The feature that gives this form of computer organi-
`Zvfltton its great power is the ease with which instruc-
`llOBS can be changed; the particular calculations car-
`md “l“ b)“ the computer are determined entirely by a
`5alliance of
`instructions stored in the computer's
`tummy; that sequence can be altered completely by
`51mph? reading a new set of instructions into the
`memory through the computer input equipment.
`lllfiructluns. To understand better the nature or the
`s‘,‘3"“-El‘lil'ttlgram computer. consider in more detail the
`kinds of instructions it can carry out and the logic of
`e computation and control unit which interprets and
`
`Digital computer
`
`281'
`
`5 bits
`
`11 bits
`
` address
`
`command
`Pig. 3. Shanon-hit irtutruction.
`
`implements the instructions. Because the instructions.
`like the data. are stored in computer words. one he—
`gins by examining how an instruction is stored in a
`word. As an example. assume one is looking at a
`small computer with words 16 bits long. and assume
`further that an instruction is organized as shown in
`Fig. 3, In this simple computer an instruction has two
`parts: the first 5 bits of the word specify which of the
`computer's repertoire of commands is to be carried
`out. and the last
`I
`l bits generally specify the address
`of the word referred to by the command. A 5—bit
`command permits up to 32 different kinds of instruc-
`tions in the computer. and an ll—btt address permits
`one to address up to 2048 different memory locations
`directly.
`instruction types for a computer of this
`Typical
`kind are listed below.
`Load. Load the number from the prescribed mem—
`ory location into the arithmetic unit.
`Store. Store the number front the arithmetic unit in
`the memory at the prescribed memory location.
`Md. Add the contents of the addressed memory lo-
`cation to the number in the arithmetic unit.
`leaving
`the result in the arithmetic unit
`the addressed
`Subtract. Subtract
`the contents of
`memory location from the number in the arithmetic
`unit. leaving the result in the arithmetic unit.
`Branch. If the number in the arithmetic unit is zero
`or positive. read the next instruction from the address
`in the next-instruction register as usual. if the number
`in the arithmetic unit
`is negative. store the address
`from the branch instruction itself in the next—instruc-
`tion register. so that the next Instruction carried out
`will be retrieved front the address given in the branch
`instruction.
`Hall. Stop; cany out no further instmctions until
`the operator presses the RUN switch on the console.
`input. Read the next character from the paper tape
`reader into the addressed memory location and then
`move the tape so a new character is ready to be read.
`Output. Type out the character whose code is stored
`in the right-hand half of the addressed memory loca—
`tion.
`
`the
`With the exception of the branch command.
`preceding instructions are easy to interpret and to un—
`derstand. The load and store commands move data to
`and from the arithmetic unit. respectively. The add
`and subtract commands perform arithmetic opera-
`tions, each using the number previously left
`in the
`arithmetic unit as one. operand. and a number read
`from a designated memory location .as the other. The
`belt command simply tells the computer to stop and
`requires intervention by the operator to make the
`computer initiate computation again. The input and
`output commands make possible the reading of infor-
`mation into the computer memory from a paper tape
`in? device. and the printing out of the results from
`previous computations on an output typewriter.
`To understand the branch command, consider how
`the computation and control unit of Fig. 4 uses the
`instructions in the memory. To begin with.
`the in-
`
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`

`233
`
`Digital computer
`
`instruction register
`command
`
`next-instruction
`address realStar
`5
`TI/I—l
`dd:
`‘l’
`
`instruction
`from memory
`Fig. 4. Computation and control unit.
`
`operand
`horn/lo memory
`
`address to
`control memory
`
`structioris which are to be carried 00' “1”“ be 5‘0er
`in consecutive 510513.; locations in memory. Assume
`mm the first of a sequence of commands is in memory
`location llltl. Then the "next—instruction address refit
`ister" in the computation and control unit (Fig‘ 4}
`contains the number [00, and the l‘olloWlng s"sch-“”1“
`of four events takes place: it} read. (2'! headdress. l3}
`execute. and [42- resume.
`instruction
`Read. The control
`logic reads the neitt
`to be carried out
`from the memory location whose
`address is given by the next-instruction address reg-
`ister. The instruction coming from memory is stored
`in another register called the instruction register
`(In
`this example the next-instruction address
`register
`started out containing the number 100. and so the in—
`struction in memory location 100 is transferred to the
`Instruction register]
`
`Readdress. The control logic now adds unity to the
`number in the next instruction address register. [In the
`present example this changes the number in the next
`instruction address register from 100 to 101. The re-
`suli‘is that. when the computer has interpreted and
`earned out the instruction from location 100. follow-
`ing the rules given in the third and fourth steps below.
`it will return to the read step above and next interpret
`and carry out the instruction from location 101 l
`’ Execute. The instruction from location 100 is now
`in the instruction register and must be carried out
`-
`The control
`logic first looks at the Command
`ort‘
`of the instruction in the left-hand 5 bits of the 1!: 3'?”
`and Interprets or decodes it to determine what 5:1”
`next. If the instruction is add. subtract
`load 0 U
`0
`put. the control logic first uses the address ‘. gout-
`slruetion register——the address associated m’t E- In.
`command—and reads he w
`with the
`be .
`.
`.
`I
`ord from that addressed
`‘
`-
`.
`.
`load
`anon in memory: it then proceeds to
`into the arithmetic 11th add II to or su
`the word
`’
`.
`.
`-' btraci it From
`
`logic causes the address in
`hgwcver. the control
`instruction register to be lrttnslcrrcd to [he mu'ht
`struction address register belorc going on to [he Inu'lll‘
`step. The computer “till
`then continue with One 1'th
`quence of commands if the precious arithmetic res-"I.
`was positive. and Willi another H the result was iii.-l
`alive. This seemingly Sll'l'lplt: operation is one at"?
`most
`important features of a computer.
`It gives 1hE
`computer a decision—making ctipahiliiy lhtil Permits;
`to examine some data, coiiiptitc. a result. and continue
`with one of two sequences oi" calculations n, opera,
`tions. depending only on
`the.
`computed rm“
`Resume. As the lounh and linal chp in the w
`qucnce. when the command has been interpreted and
`carried out properly. the control
`logic reiurns tome
`road step and repeats the entire series of “BPS-
`A sequence of instructions intended to C31") out
`some desired function is called it program: collectm
`0f such programs are called software {as- distinguished
`from the equipment. or hardware}. and the actolpre.
`paring such programs is called programming Becausi;
`a computer can perform no useful
`function until
`someone has written a program embodying that tum.
`iion, the programming activity is an exceedingly .m.
`portant one and provides a basic limitation lo the lil-
`cility with which the computer can he applied in neit-
`areas.
`
`Computer characteristics. A computer lnslallallon l5
`complex Consequently it
`is difficult
`to describci
`system or to compare the characteristics of two sys-
`tems without
`listing their instruction types and tie-
`scribing their modes of operation at some length
`Nevertheless. certain important descriptors are com-
`monly used for comparison purposes and are shoun
`in Table 3. where salient characteristics of two ll'P"
`cal Sty—“16ml; are shown. Definitions of these character-
`istics can be stated as follows.
`Memory cycle time is the time required to real:
`word from main memory. Most modern conipultfi
`have integrated-circuit memories with cycle times In
`the ranges shown in Table 3 Add llmc u thrill111E
`required to perform an addition.
`including the unit
`"WES-53!} to extract the addition instruction itsrllaflll
`the “WWW from memory. Main memory HUGE“ ca-
`pacity is the number of words of storage available“1
`the C"L““P'Jlation and control unit. Typicalli'- 3 “W
`putcr manufacturer gives the buyer some choice: the
`buyer can PUrChase enough memory to meet them“
`or "‘9 “PEEK-”d application. This internal capuclll rc-
`fc'isfo ”“3 high-Speed internal storage onl}'- and does
`not include disks. drums, or magnelic tape.
`I
`Word length is the number of bits in 31 campus
`word.
`
`System cost may vary over a range of 5
`to l
`for a particular computer because 0
`
`or even I"
`t me at?“
`
`Table 3. 1'
`
`Typical systems
`
`small
`Lam
`Characteristics
`______________________/
`whims me “me
`093 ”'5
`2‘90 If;
`.
`our [1.3
`34 . was.
`“ "1 me
`a
`23900
`.p it
`ruin:
`1
`.
`'WDrd Ianglh
`
`a
`
`|PR2018—01474
`
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`

`

`l
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`Digital computer
`
`289
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`results
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`output
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`data
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`output
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`p 03 m
`data I
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`continuous activity by many independent operators
`
`program and
`data I
`
`program and
`data 11
`
`intermediate
`results I
`
`program and
`data It]
`
`intuit
`
`annotation
`to)
`
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`t—t
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`store intermediate
`output
`output
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`
`Pitt. 5. Comparison of efficiency for three generations of computers: (a) first. (1:) second. and (c) thjad.
`
`“an“? ”r oPiions offered the buyer by the manufac—
`tEMF—Options such as memory size. special
`instruc-
`tions for effiCi‘mC)’ in certain calculations, and num-
`ber and [We of peripheral devices
`“Eff; are obviously a number of other measures
`clud
`ay be used Io-desertbe a computer. They to-
`e
`such charactenstlcs
`as multiplication time.
`35%" T3155 .bmwfe” inputtoutpat equipment and
`av '
`I
`I
`'
`.
`.
`mory, Physical SIZC. power consumption. and the
`.a'labllll)’ of a variety of CDll'llellfiQ opttons and spe—
`cial features.
`‘
`
`Evntunoit or CnPABILtTIEs
`mlfimpgpcless by which new Circuit and peripheral
`Stries of “EChIt-ologtcs led to the development ot a
`aha“: Bme-encmltons of computers Was.d|5cu§5cd
`033'. there Simultaneous wIth the changes In tech‘noL
`ture 0f comCarne Changes In the Structure or architec-
`improve h Filters. The” Changes were Introduced to
`t e capability and efficiency of systems. 35
`esigners eme to un
`.
`'
`~
`~ 1
`“Wally used
`derstand how computers were
`Cum
`.
`tem rattler emc'encr. One way of looking at
`sys—
`ationBOFifrl? IS indi?aled in Fig. 5, where the oper-
`following foumpumf Is shown broken down Into the
`activities as inf Parts ”1' Operator time Includes such
`magnetic ta escnmg Cards into a card reader. loading
`a computerpgs 01110 =1 tape lel. setting‘up controls on
`l"‘~!ittlts.t2)1111mm” 5 Panel. and reviewing printed
`l:Et'al chiecg EUlfcornes to the computer from perIph~
`irlcludtt infl:
`.r‘ Tom atlmliary memory. The Inputs
`‘ multins from the operator. inputs of pro-
`
`grams to be run. and inputs of data. (3] Computation.
`being the principal activity. should occupy relatively
`much of the total time. (4) Output includes storage of
`intermediate and final
`results in auxiliary memory.
`and printing of results along with instructions or
`warnings to the computer operator.
`First-generation computer.
`In the first generation
`of computer equipment only one of these activities
`could be carried out at a time. Between jobs the com-
`puter was idle while an operator made ready for the
`next task. When the operator was ready, the program
`was read into the computer from some input device
`and the input data were then loaded. The program
`operated upon the data and performed necessary cal—
`culations. When the calculations were complete.
`the
`computer printed out answers. and the operator took
`steps to set up the next problem.
`Second-generation computer. This series of oper‘
`ations was inefficient. and the designers of second-
`generation equipment
`removed some of the ineffi-
`ciency by arranging input and output operations to be
`performed directly between the inputtoutput periph‘
`ends and the computer memory without
`interfering
`with computations. As a result. second-generation
`computers were able to perform computatiorts while
`reading in data and printing out replies, and efficiency
`was greatly enhanced. Figure 6 indicates schemati—
`cally the organizational change between generations
`of computers.
`_
`First-generation equipment was most cflicrent while
`performing tedious and lengthy computations. The in—
`pquutpul capabilities of the second generation made
`
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`290
`
`Digital computer
`
`
`
`{bl
`
` auxiliary
`
`mentor!
`
`lcl
`
`Fig. 6. Evolution of tat-gamma: for four generations of
`computers: to) East: (1:) second and tltird: (e) room-t.
`
`in applications where lar
`them useful
`gt: volumes of
`.
`data had to be handled with relatively little computa-
`tion—applications such as billing. payroll. and inven-
`toryIcontrol. At Ithe same time.
`the great capability
`and increased reliability of second—generation systems
`encouraged engineers to applyr
`them to situations
`w ere
`c computer acts as a control element. In mil-
`; and chemical plants.
`in
`
`.
`_
`its. and as
`performed appropriate calculatio '
`made adjustments in the air
`a mull
`_
`craft en in*
`flow of raw materials in the
`g L “W“.
`the
`.
`.
`plant or r
`‘
`experimental setup in the laboratory.
`'Talia:Sewncl;r $6
`portant developments in
`.
`was a new set
`'
`—
`pquLttpltt equipments that could be connected EFL",
`I
`.
`.
`_
`g Instru
`'
`cess instruments. convertin
`'
`digital quantities and back again
`merit Signals tnlo
`The second development. which evolved from the
`
`use of the computer in second—gcncralion comm] a
`plications, was the interrupt. The processes (it ICIIIII.
`tics under control