AUTOMOTIVE
`ELECTRONICS
`HANDBOOK
`
`1
`
`UNIFIED 1005
`
`1
`
`UNIFIED 1005
`
`

`

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`2
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`

`

`AUTOMOTIVE
`
`ELECTRONICS
`
`HANDBOOK
`
`Ronald K. Jurgen Editor in Chief
`
`McGraw-Hill, Inc.
`NawYork San Francisco Washington.D.C. Auckland Bogota
`Caracas Lisbon London Madrid Mexico City Milan
`Montreal New Delhi San Juan Singapore
`Sydney Tokyo Toronto
`
`3
`
`

`

`Library of Congress Cataloging-in—Pablition Data
`
`Automotive electronics handbook i Ronald Jurgen, editor in chief.
`p.
`cm.
`Includes index.
`ISBN {rm—03313943
`1. Automobiles—Electronic equipment.
`TL272.5.A982
`1994
`629.25'49—dc
`
`I. Jnrgen. Ronald K.
`
`94-39724
`CIP
`
`Copyright © 1995 by McGraw—Hill, Inc. All rights reserved. Printed in the
`United States of America. Except as permitted under the United States
`Copyright Act of 1976, no part of this publication may be reproduced or dis—
`tributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a data base or retrieval
`system, without the prior written permission of the publisher.
`
`678910 FGRFGR 993
`
`ISBN {LOT—0331898
`
`The sponsoring editor for this book was Stephen S. Chapman, the editing
`supervisor was Virginia Carroll, and the production supervisor was
`Suzanne W. B. Rapcovage. It was set in Times Roman by North Market
`Street Graphics.
`
`McGraw—Hill books are available at special quantity discounts to use as pre-
`miums and sales promotions, or for use in corporate training programs. For
`more information, please write to the Director of Special Sales, McGraw—
`Hill, Inc., 11 West 19th Street, New York, NY 10011. Or contact your local
`bookstore.
`-
`
`Information contained in this work has been obtained by McGraw-
`Hill, Inc. from sources believed to be reliable. However, neither
`McGraw—Hill nor its authors guarantee the accuracy or complete—
`ness of any information pubiished herein, and neither McGraw—
`Hill nor its authors shall be responsible for any errors, omissions,
`or damages arising out of use of this information. This work is
`published with the understanding that McGraw—Hill and its authors
`are supplying information, but are not attempting to render engi-
`neering or other professional services. If such services are
`required, the assistance of an appropriate professional should be
`
`sought.
`
`This book is printed on acid-flee paper.
`
`4
`
`

`

`This book is dedicated to Robert H. Lewis and to
`
`the memories of Douglas R. Jurgen and Marion
`Schappel.
`
`5
`
`

`

`6
`
`

`

`
`
`CONTENTS
`
`Contributors
`Preface
`xvii
`
`xv
`
`Part 1
`
`Introduction
`
`1.3
`Chapter 1. Introduction RonaldK.Jurgen
`
`1.1 The Dawn of a New Era I 1.3
`1.2 The Microcomputer Takes Center Stage I 1.4
`1.3 Looking to the Future ! 1.5
`References I 1.6
`
`Part 2 Sensors and Actuators
`
`2.3
`Chapter 2. Pressure Sensors Randy Frank
`
`2.1 Automotive Pressure Measurements i 2.3
`2.2 Automotive Applications for Pressure Sensors I 2.5
`2.3 Technologies for Sensing Pressure r‘ 2.15
`2.4 Future Pressure—Sensing Developments
`! 2.23
`Glossary 1 2.24
`Bibliography i 224
`
`3.1
`Chapter 3. Linear and Angle Position Sensors Paul'Nickson
`
`3.1 Introduction 1" 3.1
`I 3.1
`3.2 Classification of Sensors
`3.3 Position SensorTechnologies I 3.2
`3.4 Interfacing Sensors to Control Systems I 3.16
`Glossary 1 3.17
`References l 317
`
`£1
`Chapter 4. Flow Sensors Robert E. Braking
`
`4.1 Introduction l' 4.1
`4.2 Automotive Applications of Flow Sensors l' 4.1
`4.3 Basic Classification of Flow Sensors I 4.3
`4.4 Applicable Flow MeasurementTechnologies ! 4.4
`Glossary .I' 4.8
`Bibliography i 4.9
`
`vii
`
`7
`
`

`

`viii
`
`CONTENTS
`
`5.1
`Chapter 5. Temperature, Heat, and Humidity Sensors Randy Frank
`
`5.1 Temperature, Heat, and Humidity / 5.1
`5.2 Automotive Temperature Measurements / 5.5
`5.3 Humidity Sensing and Vehicle Performance / 5.12
`5.4 Sensors forTemperature / 5.14
`5.5 Humidity Sensors / 5.21
`5.6 Conclusions / 5.22
`Glossary / 5.23
`Bibliography / 523
`
`Chapter 6. Exhaust Gas Sensors Hans~Martin Wiedenmann,
`6.1
`Gerhard H6tzel, Harald Neumann, Johann Riegel, and Helmut Weyl
`
`6.1 Basic Concepts / 6.1
`6.2 Principles of Exhaust Gas Sensors for Lambda Control
`6.3 Technology of Ceramic Exhaust Gas Sensors / 6.11
`64 Factors Affecting the Control Characteristics of Lambda = 1 Sensors / 6.14
`6.5 Applications / 6.18
`6.6 Sensor Principles for Other Exhaust Gas Components / 6.20
`Bibliography / 6.22
`
`/ 6.5
`
`Chapter 7. Speed and Acceleration Sensors William c. Dunn
`
`7.1
`
`7.1 Introduction / 7.1
`7.2 Speed-Sensing Devices / 7.2
`7.3 Automotive Applications for Speed Sensing / 7.6
`7.4 Acceleration Sensing Devices / 7.8
`7.5 Automotive Applications for Accelerometers / 7.18
`7.6 New Sensing Devices / 7.22
`7.7 Future Applications / 7.24
`7.8 Summary / 726
`Glossary / 7.27
`References / 728
`
`8.1
`Chapter 8. Engine Knock Sensors William G. Wolber
`8.1 Introduction / 8.1
`8.2 The Knock Phenomenon / 8.2
`8.3 Technologies for Sensing Knock / 8.4
`8.4 Summary / 8.9
`Glossary / 8.9
`References / 8.9
`
`9.1
`Chapter 9. Engine Torque Sensors William G. Wolber
`
`9.1 Introduction / 9.1
`9.2 Automotive Applications ofTorque Measurement
`9.3 DirectTorque Sensors / 9.6
`9.4 Inferred Torque Measurement
`9.5 Summary / 9.13
`Glossary / 9.13
`References / 9.14
`
`/ 9.8
`
`/ 9.3
`
`8
`
`

`

`10.1
`Chapter 10. Actuators Klaus mutter
`
`CONTENTS
`
`ix
`
`10.1 Preface 1 10.1
`10.2 Types of ElectromechanicalActuators 1 10.2
`10.3 Automotive Actuators 1 10.19
`10.4 Technology for Future Application 1 10.27
`Acknowledgments I 10.30
`Glossary 1 10.30
`Bibliography 1 10.31
`
`Part 3 Control Systems
`
`11.3
`Chapter 1 1. Automotive Microeontrollers David 9. Boehmer
`
`11.1 Microcontroller Architecture and Performance Characteristics 1 11.3
`11.2 Memory 1 11.24
`11.3 Low-Speed InputJOutput Ports 1 11.31
`11.4 Higl’hSpeed U0 Ports 1 11.36
`11.5 Serial Communications 1 11.41
`11.6 Analog-to-Digital Converter
`1 11.45
`11.7 Failsafc Methodologies 1 11.49
`11.8 FutureTrends 1 11.51
`GloSSary 1' 11.54
`Bibliography 1 11.55
`
`Gary C. Hirsehh'eb, Gottfried Schiller;
`Chapter 12. Engine Control
`12.1
`and Shari Stolfler
`
`12.1 Objectives of Electronic Engine Control Systems 1 12.1
`12.2 Spark Ignition Engines 1 12.5
`12.3 Compression Ignition Engines 1 1232
`
`Kurt Neuffer, Wolfgang Bull'mer.
`Chapter 13. Transmission Control
`and Werner Brehm
`13.1
`
`13.1 Introduction 1 13.1
`13.2 System Components 1 13.2
`13.3 System Functions 1 13.7
`13.4 Communications with Other Electronic Control Units 1 13.17
`13.5 Optimizationof the Driverrain 1 13.18
`13.6 Future Developments 1 13.19
`Glossary 1 13.20
`References I 1320
`
`Chapter 14. Cruise Control Richard Valentine 14.1
`
`14.]. Cruise Control System 1 14.1
`14.2 Microcontroller Requirements for Cruise Control
`14.3 Cruise Control Software 1 14.4
`14.4 Cruise Control Design 1 14.6
`14.5 Future Cruise Concepts 1 14.7
`Glossary 1 14.8
`Bibliography 1 14.8
`
`1 14.3
`
`9
`
`

`

`CONTENTS
`
`Chapter 15. Braking Control
`Jerry 1.. Cage
`15.1
`
`15.1 Introduction 1 15.1
`152 Vehicle Braking Fundamentals a" 15.1
`15.3 Antilock Systems 1 15.8
`15.4 Future Vehicle Braking Systems 1 15.14
`Glossary 1 15.15
`References 1 15.16
`
`Chapter 16. Traction Control Armin Czinczet
`16.1
`
`16.1 Introduction 1 16.1
`16.2 Forces Affecting Wheel Traction: Fundamental Concepts 1' 16.3
`16.3 ControlledVaiiables 1 16.5
`16.4 Control Modes 1 16.6
`16.5 Traction Control Components 1 16.11
`166 Applications on Heavy Commercial Vehicles 1 16.13
`16.7 FutureTrends 1 1614
`Glossary 1 16.14
`Bibliography 1 16.15
`
`Chapter 1?. Suspension Control Akarsu Yahsuke
`17.1
`
`
`11.1 Shock Absorber Control System 1 17.1
`17.2 Hydropneumatic Suspension Control System 1 17.4
`17.3 Electronic Lewling Control System 1 17.5
`11.4 Active Suspension 1 17.8
`17.5 Conclusion 1 17.17
`Glossary 1 17.18
`Nomenclature 1 17.18
`Bibliography 1 17.18
`
`Chapter 18. Steering Control Makoto Sate
`18.1
`
`
`18.1 Variable-Assist Steering 1 18.1
`18.2 Four-Wheel Steering Systems (4W5)
`Glossary 1 18.33
`References I 18.33
`
`1 18.15
`
`Chapter 19. Lighting, Wipers, Air Conditioning! Heating
`Richard Valentine
`
`
`19.1
`
`191 Lighting Controls 1 19.1
`1 19.9
`19.2 Windshield Wiper Control
`19.3 Air Conditionerfl-Ieater Control
`1 19.15
`19.4 Miscellaneous Load Control Reference 1 19.20
`19.5 Future Load Control Concepts I 19.25
`Glossary 1 19.26
`Bibliography 1 19.27
`
`10
`
`10
`
`

`

`Part 4 Displays and Information Systems
`
`
`
`Chapter 20. Instrument Panel Displays Ronald K. Jargon 20.3
`
`CONTENTS
`
`)(i
`
`20.] The Evolution to Electronic Displays 1 20.3
`20.2 Vacuum Fluorescent Displays l' 20.3
`20.3 Liquid Crystal Displays I 20.4
`20.4 Cathode—RayTube Displays f 20.6
`20.5 Head—up Displays l 20.6
`l 20.8
`20.6 Electronic Analog Displays
`20.7 Reconfigurable Displays 1 20.9
`References l' 20.9
`
`
`
`Chapter 21. Trip Computers Ronald K. Jurgen 21.1
`
`21.1 Trip Computer Basics I 21.1
`21.2 Specific Trip Computer Designs 1' 21.2
`21.3 Conclusion l 21.4
`References I 23.6
`
`Chapter 22. On- and Off-Board Diagnostics Wolfgang Bremen
`
`Frieder Heintz, and Robert Huge! 22.1
`
`221 Why Diagnostics? I 22.1
`22.2 On~Board Diagnostics I 22.6
`22.3 Off—Board Diagnostics I 22.7
`22.4 Legislation and Standardimtion I 22.8
`22.5 Future DiagnosticConcepts l 22.15
`Glossary 1" 2218
`References l 2219
`
`Part 5 Safety, Convenience, Entertainment,
`and Other Systems
`
`
`
`Chapter 23. Passenger Safety and Convenience Bernhard K. Matfes 23.3
`
`23.1 Passenger Safety Systems I 23.3
`23.2 Passenger Convenience Systems l 23.11
`Glossary l’ 23.13
`Bibliography l 2313
`
`
`
`Chapter 24. Antitheft Systems 24.1 Shfnfchr' Kata
`
`
`
`24.1 Vehicle Theft Circumstances r' 24.1
`24.2 Overview of Antithefl Regulations l 24.2
`24.3 ABasic Antitheft System l 243
`
`11
`
`11
`
`

`

`xii
`
`CONTENTS
`
`
`
`
`
`Tom ChrapkiewiczChapter 25. Entertainment Products 25.1
`
`25.1 Fundamentals ofAudio Systems I 25.1
`25.2 A Brief History of Automotive Entertainment
`25.3 Contemporary Audio Systems I 25.5
`25.4 FutureTrends I 25.12
`Glossary I 25.]?
`References I 25.18
`
`I 25.4
`
`
`
`Chapter 25. Multiplex Wiring Systems Fred Miesterfeid 26.1
`
`26.1 Vehicle Multiplexing I 26.}
`26.2 Encoding Techniques I 26.9
`26.3 Proloeols
`I 26.23
`26.4 Summary and Conclusions I 26.53
`Glossary I 26.56
`References I 26.64
`
`Part 6 Electromagnetic Interference and Compatibility
`
`Chapter 27. Electromagnetic Standards and Interference
`
`James P. Muccioii 27.3
`
`I 27.3
`27.1 SAE Automotive EMC Standards
`22.2 IEEE Standards Related to EMC I 27.11
`27.3 The Electromagnetic Environment of an Automobile Electronic System I 27.13
`Bibliography I 27.}8
`
`
`
`Chapter 28. Electromagnetic Compatibility James P. Muccioii 28.1
`
`28.1 Noise Propagation Modes I 28.1
`28.2 Cabling I 28.2
`28.3 Components I 28.4
`I 28.9
`28.4 Printed Circuit Board EMC Checklist
`28.5 Integrated Circuit Decoupling—A Key Automotive EMI Concern I 28.19
`28.6 [C Process Size Affects EMC I 28.14
`Bibliography I 28.19
`
`Part 7 Emerging Technologies
`
`Chapter 29. Navigation Aids and Intelligent Vehicle-Highway Systems Robert L.
`
`French 29.3
`
`29.1 Background I 29.3
`29.2 Automobile Navigation Technologies I 29.4
`29.3 Examples of Navigation Systems
`I 29.10
`29.4 Other IVHS Systems and Services I 29.15
`References I 29.}:3
`
`12
`
`12
`
`

`

`Chapter 30. Electric and Hybrid Vehicles George G. Karady, Tracy Blake,
`
`Raymond S. Hobbs, and Donald B. Kamer 30.1
`
`CONTENTS
`
`xiii
`
`30.1 Introduction I 30.1
`302 System Description I 30.5
`30.3 Charger and Protection System I 30.6
`30.4 MotorDrive System I 30.8
`30.5 Battery I 30.17
`30.6 Vehicle Control and Auxiliary Systems
`30.? Infrastructure I 30.21
`30.8 Hybrid Vehicles I 3023
`Glossary I 30.24
`References I 30.25
`
`I 30.19
`
`
`
`
`
`Jeffrey N. DenenbergChapter 31. Noise Cancellation Systems 31.1
`
`I 31.1
`31.1 Noise Sources
`31.2 Applications I 31.5
`Glossary I 31.10
`Bibliography I 3.1.10
`
`
`
`Chapter 32. Future Vehicle Electronics Randy Frank and Salim Momln 32.1
`
`32.1 Retrospective I 32.1
`32.2 IC "Ilechnology I 32.1
`32.3 Other SemiconductorTechnologies I 32.5
`32.4 Enabling the Future I 32.11
`32.5 Impact on Future Automotive Electronics I 32.15
`32.6 Conclusions I 3220
`Glossary I 32.21
`Bibliography I 32.23
`
`Index I
`
`{.1
`
`13
`
`13
`
`

`

`14
`
`14
`
`

`

`
`
`CONTRIBUTORS
`
`Robert E. Bicking Haneyweit', Micro Switch Division (CHAR 4)
`
`Tracy Blake Arizona State University (CHAR 30)
`
`David S. Boehmer
`
`tntet Corporation (CHAR 11)
`
`Werner Brehm Robert Bosch Grrth (CHAR 13)
`Woligang Bremer Robert Bosch GmbH (CHAR 22)
`
`Woligang Bullmer Robert Bosch GmbH (CHAP. 13)
`
`Jerry L. Cage Ah‘ied Signet, lrtc. (CHAR 15)
`
`Tom Chrapkiewicz Philips Semiconductor [CHAR 25}
`
`Armin Czinczel Robert Bosch GmbH (CHAR 16)
`
`Jeffrey M. Denenberg Noise Cancellation Technologies, Inc. (CHAP. 31)
`
`William C. Dunn Motorola Semiconductor Products (CHAR 7)
`
`Handy Frank Motoroia Semiconductor Products (CHAPS. 2, 5, 32)
`
`Robert L French R. L. French & Associates (CHAR 29)
`
`Frieder Heintz Robert Bosch GmbH (CHAR 22)
`
`Gary C. Hirschlieb Robert Bosch GmbH (CHAR 12)
`Raymond S. Hobbs Arizona Public Service Company (CHAR 30)
`
`Gerhard Hétzel Robert Batch GmbH (CHAR 6)
`
`Robert Hugel Robert Bosch GmbH (CHAR 22)
`
`Ronald K. Jurgen Editor (CHAPS. 1, 20, 21]
`
`George G. Karady Arizona State Univeristy (CHAR 30)
`
`Donald B. Karner Electric Transportation Application (CHAR 30)
`
`Shinichi Kata Nissan Motor Co, Ltd. (CHAR 24)
`
`Bernhard K. Mat-tea Robert Bosch GmbH (CHAP. 23)
`
`Fred Miesterfeld Chrysler Corporation (CHAR 26}
`
`Salim Momin Motorola Semiconductor Products (CHAR 32)
`
`James P. Muccioli
`
`JASTECH (CHAPS. 27. 28)
`
`Klaus Mailer Robert Bosch GmbH (CHAP. 10)
`
`Kurt Neuffer Robert Bosch GmbH (CHAR 13)
`Harald Neumann Robert Bosch Gran (CHAR 6)
`
`Paul Nicksnn Analog Devices, Inc. {CHAR 3)
`
`Johann Riegel Robert Bosch GmbH (CHAR 6)
`
`15
`
`15
`
`

`

`xvi
`
`CONTRIBUTORS
`
`Makoto Sato Honda R&D Co, Ltd. (CHAR 18}
`
`Gottfried Schiller Ruben Bosch GmbH (CHAR 12)
`
`Shari Stottler Roben Bosch GmbH (CHAR 12)
`
`Richard Valentine Motorola Inc. (CHAPS. 14, 19)
`
`Helmut Way! Robert Bosch GmbH (CHAR 6)
`
`Hans-Martin Wiedenmann Robert Bosch GmbH (CHAR 6)
`
`William G. Wolber Cummim Electronics Co., Inc. (CHAPS. 8, 9)
`
`Akatsu Yohsuke Nissan Motor Co., Ltd. (CHAR 17}
`
`16
`
`16
`
`

`

`
`
`PREFACE
`
`Automotive electronics as we know it today encompasses a wide variety of devices and sys-
`tems Key to them all, and those yet to come, is the ability to sense and measure accurately
`automotive parameters. Equally important at the output is the ability to initiate control
`actions accurately in response to commands. In other words, sensors and actuators are the
`heart of any automotive electronics application.'Ihat is why they have been placed first in this
`handbook where they are described in technical depth. In other chapters, application—specific
`discussions of sensors and actuators can be found.
`
`The importance of sensors and actuators cannot be overemphasized. The future growth of
`automotive electronics is arguably more dependent on sufficiently accurate and low—cost sen-
`sors and actuators than on computers, controls, displays, and other technologies. Yet it is those
`nonsensor, nonactuator technologies that are to many engineers the more “glamorous” and
`exciting areas of automotive electronics
`In the section on control systems, a key in-depth chapter deals with automotive microcom-
`trollers. Without them, all of the controls described in the chapters that follow in that sec-
`tion—engine, transmission, cruise, braking, traction, suspension, steering, lighting, windshield
`wipers, air conditionerfheater—would not be possible. Those controls, of course, are key to car
`operation and they have made cars over the years more drivable, safe, and reliable.
`Displays, trip computers, and on- and off-board diagnOStics are described in another sec-
`tion, as are systems for paSsenger safety and convenience, antitheft, entertainment, and multi-
`plex wiring. Displays and trip computers enable the driver to readily obtain valuable
`information about the car’s operation and anticipated trip time. On- and off—board diagnostics
`have of necessity become highly sophisticated to keep up with highly sophisticated electronic
`controls. Passenger safety and convenience items and antitheft devices add much to the feel-
`ing of security and pleasure in owning an automobile. Entertainment products are what got
`automotive electronics started and they continue to be in high demand by car buyers. And
`multiplex wiring, off to a modest start in production cars, holds great promise for the future in
`reducing the cumbersome wiring harnesses preSently used.
`The section on electromagnetic interference and compatibility emphasizes that interfer-
`once from a variety of sources, if not carefully taken into account early on, can raise havoc
`with What otherwise would be elegant automotive electronic designs And automotive systems
`themSelves, if not properly designed, can cause interference both inside and outside the auto—
`mobile.
`
`In the final section on emerging technologies, some key newer areas are presented:
`
`I Navigation aids and intelligent vehicle—highway systems are of high interest worldwide
`since they hold promise to alleviate many of vehicle—caused problems and frustrations in
`our society.
`
`I While it may be argued that electric vehicles are not an emerging technology, since they
`have been around for many years, it certainly is true that they have yet to come into their
`own in any really meaningful way.
`
`I Electronic noise cancellation is getting increasing attention from automobile designers
`seeking an edge over their competitors.
`
`xvii
`
`17
`
`17
`
`

`

`xviii
`
`PREFACE
`
`The final chapter on future vehicle electronics is an umbrella discussion that runs the
`gamut of trends in future automotive electronics hardware and software. It identifies poten—
`tial technology developments and trends for future systems.
`Nearly every chapter contains its own glossary of terms. This approach, rather than one
`overall unified giossary, has the advantage of allowing terms to be defined in a more applica-
`tion-specific manner—in the context of the subject of each chapter. It should also be noted
`that there has been no attempt in this handbook to cover, except peripherally, purely mechan—
`ical and electrical devices and systems To do so would have restricted the number of pages
`available for automotive electronics discussions.
`
`Finally, the editor would like to thank all contributors to the handbook and particularly
`two individuals: Otto Holzinger of Robert Bosch GmbH in Stuttgart, Germany and Randy
`Frank of Motorola Semiconductor Products in Phoenix, Arizona. Holzinger organized the
`many contributions to this handbook from his company. Frank= in addition to contributing
`two chapters himself and cocontributing a third, organized the other contributions from
`Motorola. Without their help, this handbook would not have been possible.
`
`Ronald K. Jurgen
`
`18
`
`18
`
`

`

`AUTOMOTIVE
`ELECTRONICS
`HANDBOOK
`
`19
`
`19
`
`

`

`20
`
`20
`
`

`

`P-A°R°T
`
`INTRODUCTION
`
`21
`
`21
`
`

`

`22
`
`22
`
`

`

`
`
`CHAPTER 1
`
`INTRODUcTIQN
`
`Ronald K. Jurgen
`Editor
`
`
`.1. 1 THE DAWN OFA NEW ERA
`
`In today’s world of sophisticated automotive electronics, it is easy to forget how far the tech—
`nology has come in a relatively short time. In the early 19703, other than radios and tape play—
`ers,
`the only standard electronic components and systems on most automobiles were
`alternator diodes and voltage regulators.1 By the fall of 1974, “there were twelve electronic
`systems available, none of which were across the board standard production items. .
`.
`. The
`twelve electronic systems or subsystems were: alternator diodes, voltage regulators, electronic
`fuel injection, electronic controlled ignition, intermittent windshield wipers, cruise control,
`wheel lock control, traction control, headlamp control, climate control, digital clocks, and air
`bag crash sensors."1
`
`1.1.1 Car Makers and the Electronics Industry: Friendly Adversaries
`
`In the early days of automotive electronics, the automotive industry and the electronics indus-
`try were often at odds. Carmakers needed inexpensive components and systems that would
`operate reliably in the extremely harsh automotive environment. The electronics industry, on
`the other hand, used to producing high—quality but expensive parts and systems for the mili—
`tary, was skeptical about its ability to produce the components the automobile industry
`wanted at the prices they demanded. But both industries realized that electronics could pro-
`vide the capability to solve automotive problems that defied conventional mechanical or elec-
`tromechanical approaches.
`Some of the leading electronics engineers who worked in the automotive industry—as well
`as their counterparts in the electronics industry—realized that this existing friendly adversar—
`ial relationship had to be converted to a mutual effort to find cost—effective and reliable solu—
`tions to urgent automotive problems.
`Thus it was in 1973 that Trevor Jones (then with General Motors), Joseph Ziomek (then
`with Ford),Ted Schaller (Allen Bradley), Jerry Rivard (then with Bendix), Oliver McCarter
`(General Motors), and William Saunders (Society of Automotive Engineers), proposed that a
`new conference be held in 19054.1 Dubbed Convergence to signify the coming together of the
`two industries, the first conference was successful and, sponsored alternately by the Society of
`Automotive Engineers and the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, it has been
`held successfully every other year ever since.
`
`1.3
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`1.4
`
`INTRODUCTION
`
`1.1.2 The United States Government Forces the Issue
`
`One of the major problems facing the automotive industry at the time of the first Conver-
`gence conference was upcoming stricter government—mandated exhaust emissions controls.
`When the United States government first mandated emissions standards for all United States
`cars, car makers met the challenge through the use of catalytic converters for hydrocarbon
`and carbon monoxide emissions and exhaust gas recirculation techniques for nitrogen oxides
`emissions. But they knew that in 1981, when the standards would be tightened from the pre-
`vious limit of 2.0 grams per mile to 1.0 gram per mile, those approaches would no longer in
`themselves be sufficient. A new approach was necessary and it involved use of a three-way
`catalyst for all three emissions together with a closed-loop, engine control system.2
`Tighter emissions control solved one problem but created another—fuel economy. The
`two seemed to be mutually exclusive. Charles M. Heinen and Eldred W. Beckrnan, writing in
`IEEE Spectrum in 197'7',3 said, “The simple truth is that there is very direct interaction
`between emissions and fuel economy. Probably the clearest example of that interactiOn is the
`fact that automobiles equipped to meet California’s tight emissions control regulations have
`consistently demonstrated about 10 percent poorer fuel economy than have comparable cars
`equipped to meet the less stringent Federal US standards” As a result of this interdepen—
`dence, emissions and fuel economy measures tended to be compromises. Greater fuel
`economies could be achieved if emissions levels were not a problem.
`
`
`1.2 THE MICROCQMPUTER TAKES CENTER STAGE
`
`The microcomputer, introduced in 1971, had yet to make major inroads in automobiles. But it
`became increasingly obvious that it was the key to meeting government exhaust emiSsion and
`fuel economy demands while also providing car buyers with cars that performed well. Meeting
`these needs necessitated precise engine control in such areas as the airffuel ratio and idle speed.
`
`1.2.1 Early Applications of Microcomputers
`
`One of the first microcomputer applications in cars was an advanced ignition system built by
`Delco—Remy for the 1977 Oldsmobile Toronado. Called the MISAR (microprocessed sensing
`and automatic regulation) system, it controlled spark timing precisely no matter what load
`and speed conditions prevailed while meeting emissions control requirements and providing
`good driveability. Input signals from sensors provided data on crankshaft position, manifold
`vacuum, coolant temperature, and reference timing.‘1 The microprocessor used had a capacity
`of 10,240 bits.
`Early applications such as the MISAR paved the ground for what would later become the
`prolific use of microcomputers in cars. Once reliable microcomputers met the cost restraints
`of carmakers, there was no end in sight to microcomputer applications in cars. In the late
`19705, total engine control with microcomputers became widespread and, as time went on, use
`of microcomputers spread to other controls for transmission, braking, traction, suspension,
`steering, lighting, air conditioning, and so forth.
`
`1.2.2 The Bells and Whistles Period
`
`There was also a time in the early 1980s when carmakers, heady with success with microcom—
`puters in other areas, went through a period of electronic overkill. Notable in this regard were
`voice commands and warnings that tended to wear out their welcome quickly with car drivers
`
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`

`INTRODUCTION
`
`1.5
`
`and elaborate and flashy information displays that also turned off many car buyers. It was a
`period of doing things with microcomputers because they could be done rather than doing
`them because they were needed.
`That overin dulgent microcomputer period quickly waned as car buyers made their feelings
`known. Voice commands were all but totally abandoned and displays were made less garish.
`There was even a return to analog displays for speedometers, for example, albeit electroni-
`cally based rather than the old mechanical or electromechanical system. Carmakers returned
`to using microcomputers in truly functional ways to answer real needs.
`
`1.3 LOOKING TO THE FUTURE
`
`The future for automotive electronics is bright. Electronic solutions have proven to be reli—
`able over time and have enabled carrnakers to solve problems otherwise unsolvable But what
`does the future hold? Some predictions for the future have been discussed in the following
`pages by contributors.
`
`1.3.1 Contributors’ Predictions
`
`Although there have been many significant automotive electronics advances over the years,
`the end is certainly not in sight. The final chapter in this handbook describes many upcoming
`advances in detail. Authors Frank and Momin, for example, state that a likely future scenario
`“will be a combination of centralization and distributed intelligence where the centralization
`would be based along the lines of body, chassis and safety, powertrain, and audiolentertain—
`ment and communications. Within these centralized systems would be distributed intelligence
`based on multiplex wiring with smart sensors, switch decoders, and smart actuators all con-
`trolled by a central intelligence.”
`Here are additional selected future developments cited by contributors in other chapters:
`
`- Expansion of the air bag system to include side impact protection (Dunn, Chap. 7)
`0 Magnetic transistors and diodes that can be directly integrated with signal conditioning cir—
`cuits (Dunn, Chap. 7)
`0 Electronic switched stop lamps involving a rate-of—closure detector system to determine if
`the vehicle’s speed is safe for objects ahead of it. If the closure rate is unsafe, the stop lights
`could be activated to alert trailing drivers to a pending accident (Valentine, Chap. 14)
`
`I The integration of watchdog and failsafe functions onto a nucrooontroller (Boehmer, Chap. 11)
`
`- Microcontrollers that operate at frequencies of 24 MHz or 32 MHZ to allow more code to
`be executed in the same amount of time (Boehmer, Chap. ll)
`I in the mid—905, cars will have twice the electronic content of today’s cars but will be easier
`to manufacture because there will be half the number of modules due to feature content
`integration.Tbe data network interconnecting the modules will reduce the size and number
`of cables and cut the number of circuits by 50 percent (Miesterfeld, Chap. 26)
`0 A move from switching units to stepped operation actuators and the substitution of contin—
`uous for discrete time control (Muller, Chap. 10)
`
`- Electrorheological and magnetorheological fluid actuators (Muller, Chap. 10)
`
`- Micromechanical valves as actuators for converting low control power as in regulating the
`flow of fluids in hydraulic or pneumatic systems (Muller= Chap. 10)
`
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`

`1.5
`
`INTRODUCTION
`
`REFERENCES
`
`_
`
`__
`
`1. Trevor 0. Jones, “ Convergence—past and future,” Proceedings, 1992 International Congress on Trans-
`portation Electronics (Convergence), P—260, Society of Automotive Engineers, Inc, Warrendale, Pa.,
`Oct. 1992, pp. 1-3.
`2. George W. Niepoth, and Stonestreet,Stephen P,“C105ed—loop engine control," IEEE Specrmm, Nov.
`1977, pp. 52—55.
`3. Charles M. Hefner, and Beckman, Eldred W., “Balancing clean air against good mileage," IEEE Spec-
`trum, Nov. 19?7, pp. 46—50.
`4. Trevor 0. Jones, “Automotive electronics 1: smaller and better," IEEE Spectrum, Nov. 197?, pp. 34—35.
`
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`P'A-R-T
`
`SENSORS AND
`
`ACTUATORS
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`CHAPTER 2
`
`PRESSURE SENSOflS
`
`Randy Frank
`Technical Marketing Manager
`Motorola Semiconductor Products
`
`
`2.1 AUTOMOTIVE PRESSURE MEASUREMENTS
`
`Various pressure measurements are required in both the development and usage of vehicles
`to optimize performance, determine safe operation, assure conformance to government regu-
`lations, and advise the driver.These sensors monitor vehicle functions, provide information to
`control systems, and measure parameters for indicatiOn to the driver. The sensors can aiso
`provide data log information for diagnostic purposes.
`Depending on the parameter being measured, different units for indicating pressure will
`be used. Since pressure is force per unit area, basic units are pounds per square inch (psi) or
`kilograms per square centimeter. For example, tire pressure is usually indicated in psi. Mani—
`fold pressure is typically specified in kiloPascaIs (kPa). A Pascal, which is the international
`unit (SI or Systems Internationale) for pressure, is equal to 1 Newton per meter2 or 1 kg‘ m‘1
`- 3‘2. Other common units of pressure measurement include: inches, feet, or centimeters of
`water; millibars or bars, inches, or millimeters of mercury (Hg), and tour. The conversion con-
`stants as defined per international convention are indicated in Table 2.1.
`Pressure can be measured by a number of devices that provide a predictable variation when
`pressure is applied. Sensors used on vehicles range from mechanical devices—with position
`movement when pressure is applied—to a rubber or elasiomer diaphragm, to semiconductor—
`hased silicon pressure sensors, Various pressure—sensing techniques are explained in Sec 2.3.
`The type of pressure measurement that is made can be divided into five basic areas which
`are independent of the technology used for the measurement: gage, absolute, differential, liq—
`uid level, and pressure switch.
`
`2.1.1 Gage Pressure Measurements
`
`The silicon pressure sensor technology explained in Sec. 2.3.5 is used to visualize the differ—
`ence between gage, absolute, and differential pressure (refer to Fig. 2.1). For gage pressure
`measurements, the pressure is applied to