UNITED STATES PATENT AND TRADEMARK OFFICE
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`____________________
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`BEFORE THE PATENT TRIAL AND APPEAL BOARD
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`___________________
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`SANDVINE CORPORATION and SANDVINE INCORPORATED ULC,
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`PETITIONERS,
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`V.
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`PACKET INTELLIGENCE, LLC,
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`PATENT OWNER.
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`___________________
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`Case No. IPR2017-00450
`U.S. Patent No. 6,771,646
`___________________
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`DECLARATION OF KEVIN C. ALMEROTH, PH.D.
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`PACKET INTELLIGENCE LLC 2001 - 00001
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`____________________
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`BEFORE THE PATENT TRIAL AND APPEAL BOARD
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`___________________
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`SANDVINE CORPORATION and SANDVINE INCORPORATED ULC,
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`PETITIONERS,
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`V.
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`PACKET INTELLIGENCE, LLC,
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`PATENT OWNER.
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`___________________
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`Case No. IPR2017-00450
`U.S. Patent No. 6,771,646
`___________________
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`DECLARATION OF KEVIN C. ALMEROTH, PH.D.
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`PACKET INTELLIGENCE LLC 2001 - 00001
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`TABLE OF CONTENTS
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`INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................... 1
`I.
`BACKGROUND AND QUALIFICATIONS ................................................ 1
`II.
`COMPENSATION ......................................................................................... 9
`III.
`IV. MATERIALS REVIEWED ........................................................................... 9
`V.
`CLAIM CONSTRUCTION ......................................................................... 10
`A. Person of Ordinary Skill in the Art .............................................................. 10
`B. “Conversational Flow” ................................................................................. 11
`VI. OVERVIEW OF BASIC NETWORK PRINCIPLES ................................. 14
`A. The OSI Model ............................................................................................. 22
`B. Data Encapsulation ....................................................................................... 24
`C. Prior Art Network Monitors ......................................................................... 27
`VII. OVERVIEW OF ENGEL ............................................................................ 29
`A. Dialog in Engel ............................................................................................. 29
`B. Engel’s “State” Disclosure ........................................................................... 35
`VIII. OPINIONS REGARDING APPLICATION LEVEL DIALOGS AND
`APPLICATION-SPECIFIC SERVER STATISTICS ............................................. 37
`IX.
`CONCLUSION ............................................................................................ 40
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`I.
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`I, Kevin C. Almeroth, declare as follows:
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`INTRODUCTION
`1. My name is Kevin C. Almeroth. I have been retained by Skiermont
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`Derby LLP, on behalf of Packet Intelligence LLC, and am submitting this
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`declaration to offer my independent expert opinion concerning certain issues raised
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`in the present Petition for Inter Partes Review (“Petition”), as well as similar
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`Petitions submitted by Petitioners on related patents. Specifically, Petitioners filed
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`seven (7) IPR Petitions: (1) IPR2017-00450 concerning U.S. Patent No. 6,771,646,
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`(2) IPR2017-00451 concerning U.S. Patent No. 6,839,751, (3) IPR2017-00629
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`concerning U.S. Patent No. 6,954,789, (4) IPR2017-00630 concerning U.S. Patent
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`No. 6,954,789, (5) IPR2017-00769 concerning U.S. Patent No. 6,651,099, (6)
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`IPR2017-00862 concerning U.S. Patent No. 6,665,725, and (7) IPR2017-00863
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`concerning U.S. Patent No. 6,665,725 (collectively, the “Asserted IPRs” and
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`“Challenged Patents”, respectively).
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`II. BACKGROUND AND QUALIFICATIONS
`2.
`I am currently a Professor in the Department of Computer Science at
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`the University of California, Santa Barbara (UCSB). I also hold an appointment
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`and am a founding member of the Computer Engineering (CE) Program. I am a
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`founding member of the Media Arts and Technology (MAT) Program, and the
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`Technology Management Program (TMP). I also served as the Associate Director
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`of the Center for Information Technology and Society (CITS) from 1999 to 2012. I
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`have been a faculty member at UCSB since July 1997.
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`3.
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`I hold three degrees from the Georgia Institute of Technology: (1) a
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`Bachelor of Science degree in Information and Computer Science (with minors in
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`Economics, Technical Communication, and American Literature) earned in June,
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`1992; (2) a Master of Science degree in Computer Science (with specialization in
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`Networking and Systems) earned in June, 1994; and (3) a Doctor of Philosophy
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`(Ph.D.) degree in Computer Science (Dissertation Title: Networking and System
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`Support for the Efficient, Scalable Delivery of Services in Interactive Multimedia
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`System, minor in Telecommunications Public Policy) earned in June, 1997.
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`4.
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`In 1994, I began to research issues associated with the development
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`and deployment of a one-to-many communication facility (called “multicast”) in
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`the Internet (first deployed as the Multicast Backbone, a virtual overlay network
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`supporting one-to-many communication). Some of my more recent research
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`endeavors have looked at how to use the scalability offered by multicast to provide
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`streaming media support for complex applications like distance learning,
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`distributed
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`collaboration, distributed games,
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`and
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`large-scale wireless
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`communication. Multicast has also been used as the delivery mechanism in
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`systems that perform local filtering (i.e., sending the same content to a large
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`number of users and allowing them to filter locally content in which they are not
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`interested). As part of this research, I have investigated how these applications are
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`utilized by using network monitoring tools and packet traces to determine when
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`users are joined to multicast sessions.
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`5.
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`Starting in 1997, I worked on a project to integrate the streaming
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`media capabilities of the Internet together with the interactivity of the web. I
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`developed a project called the Interactive Multimedia Jukebox (IMJ). Users would
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`visit a web page and select content to view. The content would then be scheduled
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`on one of a number of channels, including delivery to students in Georgia Tech
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`dorms delivered via the campus cable plant. The content of each channel was
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`delivered using multicast communication.
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`6.
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`In the IMJ, the number of channels varied depending on the
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`capabilities of the server including the available bandwidth of its connection to the
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`Internet. If one of the channels was idle, the requesting user would be able to watch
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`their selection immediately. If all channels were streaming previously selected
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`content, the user’s selection would be queued on the channel with the shortest wait
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`time. In the meantime, the user would see what content was currently playing on
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`other channels, and because of the use of multicast, would be able to join one of
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`the existing channels and watch the content at the point it was currently being
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`transmitted.
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`7.
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`The IMJ service combined the interactivity of the web with the
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`streaming capabilities of the Internet to create a jukebox-like service. It supported
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`true Video-on-Demand when capacity allowed, but scaled to any number of users
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`based on queuing requested programs. As part of the project, we obtained
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`permission from Turner Broadcasting to transmit cartoons and other short-subject
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`content. We also attempted to connect the IMJ into the Georgia Tech campus cable
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`television network so that students in their dorms could use the web to request
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`content and then view that content on one of the campus’s public access channels.
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`As part of this work, I monitored who was requesting content and who was
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`watching content by analyzing web logs and performing packet traces.
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`8. More recently, I have also studied issues concerning how users choose
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`content, especially when considering the price of that content. My research has
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`examined how dynamic content pricing can be used to control system load. By
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`raising prices when systems start to become overloaded (i.e., when all available
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`resources are fully utilized) and reducing prices when system capacity is readily
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`available, users’ capacity to pay as well as their willingness can be used as factors
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`in stabilizing the response time of a system. This capability is particularly useful in
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`systems where content is downloaded or streamed on-demand to users.
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`9.
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`As a parallel research theme, starting in 1997, I began researching
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`issues related to wireless devices and sensors. In particular, I was interested in
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`showing how to provide greater communication capability to “lightweight
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`devices,” i.e., small form-factor, resource-constrained (e.g., CPU, memory,
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`networking, and power) devices. Starting by at least 2004, I researched techniques
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`to wirelessly disseminate information, for example, advertisements between users
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`using ad hoc networks. In the system, called Coupons, an incentive scheme is used
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`to encourage users to relay information, including advertisements, to other nearby
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`users.
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`10. Starting in 1998, I published several papers on my work to develop a
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`flexible, lightweight, battery-aware network protocol stack. The lightweight
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`protocols we envisioned were similar in nature to protocols like Universal Plug and
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`Play (UPnP) and Digital Living Network Alliance (DLNA).
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`11. From this initial work, I have made wireless networking—including
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`ad hoc, mesh networks and wireless devices—one of the major themes of my
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`research. One topic includes developing applications for mobile devices, for
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`example, virally exchanging and tracking “coupons” through “opportunistic
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`contact” (i.e., communication with other devices coming into communication
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`range with a user). Other topics include building network communication among a
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`set of mobile devices unaided by any other kind of network infrastructure. Yet
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`another theme is monitoring wireless networks, in particular different variants of
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`IEEE 802.11 compliant networks, to (1) understand the operation of the various
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`protocols used in real-world deployments, (2) use these measurements to
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`characterize use of the networks and identify protocol limitations and weaknesses,
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`and (3) propose and evaluate solutions to these problems.
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`12. Protecting networks, including their operation and content, has been
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`an underlying theme of my research almost since the beginning. Starting in 2000, I
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`have also been involved in several projects that specifically address security,
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`network protection, and firewalls. After significant background work, a team on
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`which I was a member successfully submitted a $4.3M grant proposal to the Army
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`Research Office (ARO) at the Department of Defense to propose and develop a
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`high-speed intrusion detection system. Once the grant was awarded, we spent
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`several years developing and meeting the milestones of the project. I have also
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`used firewalls in developing techniques for the classroom to ensure that students
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`are not distracted by online content.
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`13. As an important component of my research program, I have been
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`involved in the development of academic research into available technology in the
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`market place. One aspect of this work is my involvement in the Internet
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`Engineering Task Force (IETF) including many content delivery-related working
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`groups like the Audio Video Transport (AVT) group, the MBone Deployment
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`(MBONED) group, Source Specific Multicast (SSM) group, the Inter- Domain
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`Multicast Routing (IDMR) group, the Reliable Multicast Transport (RMT) group,
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`the Protocol Independent Multicast (PIM) group, etc. I have also served as a
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`member of
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`the Multicast Directorate (MADDOGS), which oversaw
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`the
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`standardization of all things related to multicast in the IETF. Finally, I was the
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`Chair of the Internet2 Multicast Working Group for seven years.
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`14.
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`I am an author or co-author of approximately 200 technical papers,
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`published software systems, IETF Internet Drafts and IETF Request for Comments
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`(RFCs). A list of these papers is included in my CV (Ex. 2002).
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`15. My involvement in the research community extends to leadership
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`positions for several journals and conferences. I am the co-chair of the Steering
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`Committee for the ACM Network and System Support for Digital Audio and
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`Video (NOSSDAV) workshop and on
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`the Steering Committees for
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`the
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`International Conference on Network Protocols (ICNP), ACM Sigcomm
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`Workshop on Challenged Networks (CHANTS), and IEEE Global Internet (GI)
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`Symposium. I have served or am serving on the editorial boards of IEEE/ACM
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`Transactions on Networking, IEEE Transactions on Mobile Computing, IEEE
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`Transactions on Networks and System Management, IEEE Network, ACM
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`Computers in Entertainment, AACE Journal of Interactive Learning Research
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`(JILR), and ACM Computer Communications Review.
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`16. Furthermore, in the courses I teach, the class spends significant time
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`covering all aspects of the Internet including each of the layers of the Open System
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`Interconnect (OSI) protocol stack commonly used in the Internet. These layers
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`include the physical and data link layers and their handling of signal modulation,
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`error control, and data transmission. I also teach DOCSIS, DSL, and other
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`standardized protocols for communicating across a variety of physical media
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`including cable systems, telephone lines, wireless, and high-speed Local Area
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`Networks (LANs). I teach the configuration and operation of switches, routers, and
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`gateways including routing and forwarding and the numerous respective protocols
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`as they are standardized and used throughout the Internet. Topics include a wide
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`variety of standardized Internet protocols at the Network Layer (Layer 3),
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`Transport Layer (Layer 4), and above. A key project in one of my classes is to use
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`packet monitoring tools and analyzing network traffic to determine what data is
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`being exchanged.
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`17.
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`In addition, I co-founded a technology company called Santa Barbara
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`Labs that was working under a sub-contract from the U.S. Air Force to develop
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`very accurate emulation systems for the military’s next generation internetwork.
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`Santa Barbara Labs’ focus was in developing an emulation platform to test the
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`performance characteristics of the network architecture in the variety of
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`environments in which it was expected to operate, and in particular, for network
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`services including IPv6, multicast, Quality of Service (QoS), satellite-based
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`communication, and security. Applications for this emulation program included
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`communication of a variety of multimedia-based services.
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`18.
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`In addition to having co-founded a technology company myself, I
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`have worked for, consulted with, and collaborated with companies such as IBM,
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`Hitachi Telecom, Digital Fountain, RealNetworks, Intel Research, Cisco Systems,
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`and Lockheed Martin.
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`19.
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`I am a Member of the Association of Computing Machinery (ACM)
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`and a Fellow of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE).
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`20. Additional details about my employment history, fields of expertise,
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`and publications are further included in my curriculum vitae, attached as Exhibit
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`2002.
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`III. COMPENSATION
`21.
`I am being compensated as an expert witness in this matter at $600
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`per hour in addition to out-of-pocket expenses. I have received no additional
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`compensation for my work on this matter and my compensation does not depend,
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`and has not ever depended in any way, on my opinion as expressed in this
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`Declaration, in any testimony that I may give, or on the outcome of this case.
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`IV. MATERIALS REVIEWED
`22.
` I have reviewed the following materials in connection with the
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`preparation of this Declaration:
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`U.S. Patent No. 6,771,646 and its file history;
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`U.S. Patent No. 6,839,751 and its file history;
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`U.S. Patent No. 6,954,789 and its file history;
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`U.S. Patent No. 6,651,099 and its file history;
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`U.S. Patent No. 6,665,725 and its file history;
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`U.S. Patent No. 6,115,393 (“Engel) (Ex. 1007);
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`Engel source code Appendix VI (Ex. 1009);
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`The Petitions for Inter Partes Review for IPR2017-00450, IPR2017-
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`00451, IPR2017-00629, IPR2017-00630, IPR2017-00769, IPR2017-
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`00862, and IPR2017-00863; and
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`The Declarations of Bill Lin submitted in connection with IPR2017-
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`00450, IPR2017-00451, IPR2017-00629, IPR2017-00630, IPR2017-
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`00769, IPR2017-00862, and IPR2017-00863.
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`V. CLAIM CONSTRUCTION
`A.
`Person of Ordinary Skill in the Art
`23.
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`I have been told that the factors that may be considered in determining
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`the ordinary level of skill in the art include: (1) the types of problems encountered
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`in the art, (2) the prior art solutions to those problems, (3) the rapidity with which
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`innovations are made, (4) the sophistication of the technology, and (5) the
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`educational level of active workers in the field.
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`24.
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`In my opinion, as it pertains to United States Patent Nos. 6,651,099;
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`6,665,725; 6,771,646; 6,839,751; and 6,954,789, a person of ordinary skill in the
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`art in the late 1990s would have the equivalent of a four-year degree from an
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`accredited institution (usually denoted as a B.S. degree) in computer science,
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`computer engineering or the equivalent and experience with, or exposure to, packet
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`analysis techniques. A person of ordinary skill in the art would also have
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`approximately 1-2 years of professional experience with packet network
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`communication protocols. Additional graduate education could substitute for
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`professional experience, while significant experience in the field might substitute
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`for formal education.
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`25. As demonstrated above in the section on my background and
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`qualifications, I more than meet the definition of one of ordinary skill in the art.
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`B.
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`“Conversational Flow”
`26.
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`I understand that a patentee can act as his own lexicographer and
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`define terms used in a specification. To do so a patentee must clearly set forth a
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`definition other than its plain and ordinary meaning.
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`27. United States Patent No. 6,651,099 states as follows at Col. 2:37-45:
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`28. An identical statement as the one highlighted above appears in U.S.
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`Patent No. 6,954,789 at Col. 2:45-53. Furthermore, I understand the Challenged
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`Patents cross-reference and incorporate the contents of United States Patent No.
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`6,651,099 (Appl. No. 09/608,237). See U.S. Patent No. 6,665,725 at Col. 1:16-21,
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`Col. 2:21-31; U.S. Patent No. 6,771,646 at Col. 1:16-19 (Ex. 1001); U.S. Patent
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`No. 6,839,751 at Col. 1:17-20 (Ex. 1002); and U.S. Patent No. 6,954,789 at Col.
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`1:7-12 (Ex. 1004).
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`29. Likewise, Provisional Application No. 60/141,903 (Ex. 1005)
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`contains the same statements at Page 3 lines 3-10:
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`30.
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`I understand all of the Challenged Patents claim priority to Provisional
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`Application No. 60/141,903 (Ex. 1005) and incorporate its contents by reference.
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`See U.S. Patent No. 6,651,099 at Col. 1:6-11 (Ex. 1003); U.S. Patent No.
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`6,665,725 at Col. 1:8-12, Col. 2:21-31; U.S. Patent No. 6,771,646 at Col. 1:8-12
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`(Ex. 1001); U.S. Patent No. 6,839,751 at Col. 1:8-12 (Ex. 1002); and U.S. Patent
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`No. 6,954,789 at Col. 1:13-16 (Ex. 1004).
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`31.
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`It is my opinion that the patentees set forth a specific definition of
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`“conversational flow” and that a person of ordinary skill in the art reading the
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`Challenged Patents would apply
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`that express definition. Specifically,
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`“conversational flow” means “the sequence of packets that are exchanged in any
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`direction as a result of an activity—for instance, the running of an application on a
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`server as requested by a client—and where some conversational flows involve
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`more than one connection, and some even involve more than one exchange of
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`packets between a client and server.”
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`VI. OVERVIEW OF BASIC NETWORK PRINCIPLES
`32. As basic background, one of the most widely used computer networks
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`is the Internet. The Internet has been around for several decades. Many trace the
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`origins of the Internet to the Arpanet (the Advanced Research Projects Agency
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`Network), which dates back to the late 1960s. While the origins of the Internet
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`were humble, it has grown into a massive, highly sophisticated network for highly
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`complex and highly varied forms of communication. One of the major leaps in the
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`Internet's evolution did not occur until the early 1990s and the sale of the NSFnet
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`Backbone to MCI, spurring commercialization of the Internet and interest in the
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`World Wide Web (WWW). These changes were significant contributors towards
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`the Internet becoming more widely available and usable.
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`33. Originally useful mainly for the exchange of text documents through
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`email (using the Simple Mail Transfer Protocol, or SMTP) or file exchange (using
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`a protocol like the File Transfer Protocol, or FTP), the Internet has evolved to
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`support more complex data including multiple media types (e.g., pictures, audio,
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`video), hence the concept of “multimedia.” Coupled with new and improved
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`delivery capabilities and increased ways of offering information to users, the ways
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`in which the Internet could be used increased dramatically during the 1990s. These
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`factors led to numerous technical innovations in the way data was made available
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`to users.
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`34. One of the more important capabilities that existed within the Internet
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`was that it was acting as an information repository whereby servers held
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`information and clients would make requests for that information. The Internet was
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`also evolving such that, instead of servers holding important information, it was
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`other users who held the information. In some cases, instead of information stored
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`in documents, it was the users themselves who were the object of contact, for
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`example, in multimedia conferencing. As described in more detail below, an
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`underlying and long-standing challenge in the Internet was identifying the right
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`address to use in contacting other users or servers.
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`35. Much Internet communication takes place using a client/server
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`paradigm. That is, content servers hold information desired by users. Through their
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`clients, users make requests for this information, and the server responds by
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`providing the requested information. Such a paradigm is used in, for example, the
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`World Wide Web (WWW). In other applications, like email, servers are
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`responsible for accepting, storing, and forwarding email.
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`36. Two principles upon which applications and the underlying network
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`infrastructure are based are the use of layered communication to break the task of
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`data delivery into more manageable sub-tasks, and the use of protocols to establish
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`rules for how data is communicated.
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`37. Generally, a protocol is a set of rules that defines how a set of
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`functions will be performed. Protocols are important within networks since the two
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`sides of a communication must act in the same, predictable way for data to be
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`successfully delivered. For example, the HyperText Transfer Protocol (HTTP)
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`defines both how requests/responses for objects are to be made and the syntax of
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`request/response messages. The way in which data is exchanged is as important as
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`the format of the data when it is exchanged. Called syntax, protocol specifications
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`typically include the way information in a message is formatted. By clearly
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`describing a protocol's communication rules and syntax, ambiguities and errors can
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`be avoided.
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`38. Protocols are then combined, based on the layer at which each
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`operates, to perform the functions necessary to deliver data between sources and
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`destinations. In many cases, there is one protocol responsible for the functions of
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`not one, but sometimes multiple layers. Each layer and its corresponding protocol
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`perform a set of functions based on widely, but not universally, agreed upon
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`guidelines. As data is prepared for transmission by an application, it is sent through
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`a set of layers. Each layer performs specified functions. For some of the layers,
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`there is a corresponding protocol and a corresponding protocol header that is added
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`to the application's data.
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`39. To help understand the process and give direction to the flow of data,
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`the layers are “stacked” one on the other, from the highest layer (the application
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`layer) to the lowest layer (the physical layer). Data, therefore, flows “down” the
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`stack from the application layer of the transmitting host, across the network, and
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`“up” a corresponding stack at the receiver.
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`40. Over the years, there have been several efforts to “standardize” the
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`layers and the functions performed by each. One example is the International
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`Standards Organization's (ISO) Open System Interconnect (OSI). The OSI stack
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`has seven layers and the general functions of each layer are well-known. ISO's OSI
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`stack model is an older example dating back to the mid-1980s. A more recent
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`example is the “TCP/IP stack,” also called the “Internet stack.” It integrated the
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`functionality of two of the layers from the OSI stack (Presentation and Session
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`Layers) into the Application Layer and better maps to the Internet's currently used
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`protocols, e.g., IP, UDP, and TCP.
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`41. Of the layers in the TCP/IP stack, the “highest” layer is the
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`application layer and includes protocols like the HyperText Transfer Protocol
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`(HTTP) and the Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP). There are dozens of
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`application layer protocols, each typically corresponding to a specific application.
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`42. The Hypertext Transfer Protocol (or “HTTP”) is an example of a
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`well-known application (layer 7) protocol. HTTP version 1.1 was published as
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`RFC 2068 in January 1997. As an application layer protocol, HTTP is a set of rules
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`for carrying application-specific data between a source and a destination (for
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`example, carrying HTTP protocol headers and world wide web data between a web
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`browser and a web site server). Because most Internet traffic uses both IP and
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`TCP, Internet traffic is often described as “TCP over IP” or simply “TPC/IP.”
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`When that traffic happens to also use HTTP as the application layer protocol, it is
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`often described as “HTTP over TCP/IP.”
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`43. The next layer is the transport layer. The two most common protocols
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`are the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and the User Datagram Protocol
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`(UDP). Where the UDP protocol only provides support for “ports,” TCP provides
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`better support for reliable data delivery through acknowledgements, in-order
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`packet delivery, connections, as well as congestion control, and similar to UDP,
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`port numbers. Data sent through the Internet almost always uses one of these two
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`protocols.
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`44. The Transmission Control Protocol, referred to as “TCP,” is one of
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`the main protocols used to send and receive information over the Internet. TCP is
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`well known in the computer networking industry—one early TCP rule set was
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`published as a Request for Comment (or “RFC”) by the Internet Engineering Task
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`Force (“IETF”) in September 1981 (RFC 793). That rule set was based on an even
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`earlier rule set published in December 1974 as RFC 675. TCP is an example of a
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`transport (layer 4) protocol in the OSI model. TCP is responsible for adding
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`reliability and ordering to the stream of network information—for example, the
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`packets of information sent using IP as the network-layer protocol may not arrive
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`at the destination in the same order intended by the sender of the message. TCP
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`sets rules for breaking up and transmitting the message so that the recipient is able
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`to reliably receive and reassemble the message. Another common analogy from the
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`physical world is the example of sending a multi-page letter through the mail by
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`separately numbering page and mailing each page in its own envelope. IP, like the
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`postal service, will route the envelope-like packets to the destination, but TCP (like
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`the numbering of the individual pages) sets the rules to allow the recipient to verify
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`that all of the pages have been received and to reassemble the pages in the right
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`order.
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`45. TCP describes, for example, how two devices on the Internet may
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`establish a connection over which TCP data packets may be communicated
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`between them. By way of a negotiation process known as a three-way handshake,
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`such a connection can be established between two nodes, and once that connection
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`establishment phase completes, data transfer can begin. Typically, a TCP
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`connection is managed by a device operating system, so that applications such as a
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`web browser, or a web server like a CDN caching server, can pass data to the
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`operating system’s TCP protocol “stack” and the operating system will manage
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`transmission of that data to the receiver, and will pass received data from the other
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`device up to the application layer.
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`46. The next layer down, and the cornerstone of the Internet, is the
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`Internet layer. The corresponding protocol, the Internet Protocol (IP), provides
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`end-to-end delivery. Using IP address and a variety of support protocols (e.g.,
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`routing protocols), routers in the Internet are able to choose the next path towards a
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`destination, thereby robustly moving packets closer to their destination. From a lay
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`perspective, the most common transport protocol, TCP, along with IP, form the
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`core of Internet communications. Hence, the Internet's protocols are commonly
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`called “TCP/IP.”
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`47. The Internet Protocol (or “IP”) is an example of a well-known
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`network (layer 3) protocol. IPv4 was published as RFC 760 in January 1980 while
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`its successor IPv6 was published as RFC 2460 in December 1998. The IP protocol
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`describes a set of rules for dividing a message into multiple parts (called “IP
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`packets”) and then transmitting those packets from an IP sender to an IP
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`destination across multiple routers or other links in a computer network. Each
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`packet of information includes an IP address for its destination, analogous to
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`sending a letter through the mail by placing the letter inside an envelope that has
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`the recipient’s postal address printed on it.
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`48. The Data Link Layer (DLL) and the Physical Layer are often closely
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`coupled. The reason is that the function of the DLL is to move bits across one
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`physical hop of an end-to-end path. A DLL protocol is typically designed for a
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`specific physical medium, though there are often many different protocols that can
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`be used for a given medium. Physical Layer protocols are responsible for
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`converting digital bits into the analog transmission signal specific to the particular
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`medium being used for communication. It is therefore clear why there is a close
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`relationship between a DLL protocol and the Physical Layer: both work for a
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`specific medium and together move data across a single hop along a path from a
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`source to a destination.
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`49. Often overlooked in the transmission of data is that DLL protocols-
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`and their headers-only survive across a single hop. Once data is delivered across
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`the hop, the DLL layer header is removed, leaving the IP header exposed, and then
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`based on the next hop to the destination, a new DLL protocol header is added-this
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`one specific to the new medium the packet is to traverse. This process is repeated
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`for each hop along the path from a source to a destination.
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`50. As mentioned above, while the stack concept is a popular metaphor to
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`help understand how network communication occurs, no reference model is
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`perfect, and each serves as a guideline. Protocols, for example, may perform
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`functions of other layers in violation of a particular reference model, and still be
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`accepted as valid protocols. Even in these cases, the abstraction provided by the
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`general principle of layering and abstraction are sufficient to enable data
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`transmission to take place successfully.
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`51.
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`In client/server based architectures that use a particula
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