[
`Dictionary of
`Information Science:
`and Tochnology
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`Apple EX. 1020
`Apple v. Uniloc
`Apple V. Uniloc
`IPR2017-00225
`IPR2017-00225
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`

`Dictionary of Information
`Science and Technology
`
`Volume I
`
`A-J
`
`Mehdi Khosrow—Pour
`
`Information Resources Management Association, USA
`
`Idea Group
`REFERENCE
`
`IDEA GROUP REFERENCE
`Hershey . London - Melbourne - Singapore
`
`0002
`
`0002
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`

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`Acquisitions Editor:
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`Managing Editor:
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`Printed at:
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`Published in the United States ofAmerica by
`Idea Group Reference (an imprint of Idea Group Inc.)
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`Hershey PA 17033
`Tel: 717—533-8845
`Fax: 717-533-8661
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`and in the United Kingdom by
`Idea Group Reference (an imprint of Idea Group Inc.)
`3 Henrietta Street
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`Web site: http://www.eurospanonline.com
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`Copyright © 2007 by Idea Group Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored or distributed in
`any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, without written permission from the publisher.
`
`Product or company names used in this set are for identification purposes only. Inclusion of the names of the products or companies
`does not indicate a claim of ownership by IGI of the trademark or registered trademark.
`
`Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
`
`Dictionary of information science and technology / Mehdi Khosrow-Pour, editor.
`p. cm.
`Summary: “This book is the premier comprehensive reference source for the latest terms, acronyms and definitions related to all
`aspects of information science and technology. It provides the most current information to researchers on every Ievel”--Provided by
`publisher.
`Includes bibliographical references and index.
`ISBN 1-59904-385-8 (hardcover) -- ISBN 1-59904-386-6 (ebook)
`1. Information science-Dictionaries. 2. Information technology-Dictionaries.
`T58.5.D499 2006
`020.03--dc22
`
`I. Khosrowpour, Mehdi, I95]-
`
`2006030015
`
`British Cataloguing in Publication Data
`A Cataloguing in Publication record for this book is available from the British Library.
`
`All work contributed to this handbook is new, previously-unpublished material. The views expressed in this handbook are those of
`the authors, but not necessarily of the publisher.
`
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`APICS° - Application Service Provider (ASP)
`
`25
`
`APICS®z See American Production and Inventory
`
`Control Society.
`
`APON: See APON or Broadband PON.
`
`Application Domain
`That part of the assumed real world that is changed by a
`work system to achieve the work system’s goals. (Diaper,
`2006)
`
`
`
`APON 0r Broadband PON (APON/BPON)
`
`APON is defined by the ITU-T G983 series of
`recommendations. It features a passive optical network for
`fiber—to-the-home service that uses ATM as its transmission
`
`protocol. BPON is an alternate name for this technology.
`(Kelic, 2005)
`
`Apparent Distance
`The perceived proximity of faculty and students in a
`distance education environment. Close apparent distance
`is the term used to describe a relationship that is perceived
`
`in regular communication—a
`as positive, supporting,
`relationship in which the student and faculty are well
`known to each other and where communications flow
`
`easily. (Sales, 2005)
`
`Applet
`A computer program that is portable between operating
`systems and requires only minimal memory to run,
`often written in the Java programming language. (Fagan,
`2005)
`
`Application 1
`1: An application is a program, script, or other collection
`ofinstructions that direct the operation ofa processor. This
`is a wide definition of“application .” It does not distinguish
`Web-based software from stand-alone software. Nor does
`
`this definition distinguish system software from goal-
`specific software. (Maris, 2005) 2: Knowledge integration
`to create organizational capability through directives,
`organizational routines, and self-contained task teams.
`(Lindsey, 2006)
`
`Application Aware vs. Application Transparent
`In application—aware fault tolerance,
`the application
`programmer writes code for fault tolerance methods that
`perform specific operations. In application—transparent fault
`tolerance, the fault tolerance middleware performs those
`
`operations automatically, using standard operating system
`functions and the technique of library interpositioning.
`(Zhao, Moser, et al., 2005)
`
`Application Infrastructure Provider (AIP)
`AtypeofASPthatusuallyoriginatesfromtelecommunication
`operators that run their own networks and Internet data
`centers. The AIP focuses on server hosting and network
`
`infrastructure management for other ASPs and corporate
`clients, and provides value-added services based on its
`technology leadership, for example, online security and
`e-payment services. (D. Kim, 2005)
`
`Application Integration
`The process of bringing data or a function from one
`application program together with that of another
`application program. (Karakostas, 2005)
`
`Application Layer
`Layer 7 of the 031 model. This layer determines the
`interface of the system with the user. (Ngoh & Shankar,
`2005)
`
`Application Program Interface (API)
`1: Part ofthe run-time environment described in SCORM.
`
`It provides a standardized way for content to communicate
`with the learning management system. (Stavredes, 2005b)
`2: A set of programming tools that provide developers
`with a simple, consistent mechanism for extending the
`functionality of an application and for accessing existing
`computing systems. (Yow & Moertiyoso, 2005) 3: A
`description of the way one piece of software asks another
`program to perform a service. A standard API for data
`mining enables different data-mining algorithms from
`various vendors to be easily plugged into application
`
`programs. (Zendulka, 2005a)
`
`Application Service Provider (ASP)
`1: A company that hosts an application on its servers
`so the client does not need to worry about the technical
`issues. The client then accesses the content and software
`
`via the Internet. (Kapp, 2005) 2: A service company
`that can support and relieve a firm from the daunting
`challenges of finding, hiring,
`inspiring, and training
`technical personnel to manage an application in-house.
`An ASP provides software applications on a pay-per-use
`or service basis viathe Internet and leased lines. (Archer,
`
`Copyright © 2007, Idea Group Inc, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of [G] is prohibited.
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`26
`
`Application Solution Providers - Appreciative Systems
`
`2005) 3: A company that manages and hosts a software
`program on behalf of a client. (Baker & Schihl, 2005) 4:
`A service company offering outsourcing solutions that
`supply, develop, and manage application-specific software
`and hardware so that customers’ internal information
`
`technology resources can be freed up. (Zhu, 2005) 5: The
`provisioning to individuals and companies of software
`applications and lCT-related services, via the Internet or
`
`other data networks, that are to be paid on a rental/usage
`base. (Iacob et al., 2005) 6: A provider of application
`services over the Internet or an intranet. (Feuerlicht &
`Vorisek, 2006) 7: A specialized operator that offers a
`bundle ofcustomized software applications from a remote
`position through the Internet, in exchange for a periodic
`fee. (Morabito & Provera, 2005) 8: A third-party service
`firm that deploys, manages, and remotely hosts software
`applications through centrally located services in a rental
`or lease agreement. Such application deliveries are done
`to multiple entities from data centers across a wide area
`
`network (WAN) as a service rather than a product, priced
`according to a license fee and maintenance contract set by
`the vendor. An ASP is considered by many to be the new
`form of IT outsourcing, usually referred to as application
`outsourcing. (Guah & Currie, 2005) 9: An HTML page
`that includes one or more scripts that are processed on
`a MicrosoftTM Web server before the page is sent to the
`user. An ASP is somewhat similar to a server-side or a
`
`common gateway interface (CGl) application in that all
`involve programs that run on the server, usually tailoring
`a page for the user. (Lee, Suh, et al., 2005)
`
`Application Solution Providers
`
`Third-party vendors who provide data center,
`telecommunications, and application options for major
`companies. (DeLorenzo, 2005)
`
`Application State
`Current snapshot of the application itself and all of the
`
`resources it addresses. (Trossen & Molenaar, 2005)
`
`Application Synchronization
`A specific type of wireless application whereby the data
`on the wireless device is synchronized with that on the
`main server. (K. J. MacGregor, 2005)
`
`Application-Layer Multicast (ALM)
`This does not require any additional protocol inthe network
`routers, since it uses the traditional unicast IP—transmission.
`Its other names are host-multicast or end-host multicast.
`(Hosszu, 2006)
`
`Application-Sharing Space
`A groupware tool that produces multiple distributed remote
`views of a particular space. Any single-user application
`put under the control ofthe particular space can be viewed
`remotely and controlled by the group members that have
`access to this space. Therefore, the application-sharing
`space transforms any single-user application put under
`its control into a multi-user shared application. (Villemur
`& Drira, 2006)
`
`Application-Specific Ontology
`An engineering object defining the model ofknowledge in
`a specific application case. (Cristani & Cuel, 2006)
`
`Applicative-Oriented Formal Specification
`Language
`Does not allow the use of variables. (Dasso & Funes,
`2005)
`
`Applied Behavior Analysis
`Experimental analysis of behavior in which the three-
`
`term contingency, antecedent conditions, response, and
`consequent events are analyzed to explain behavior.
`(Lazarus, 2005a)
`
`Applied Ethics
`
`1: The branch of ethics that emphasizes not theories of
`morality but ways of analyzing and resolving issues and
`conflicts in daily life, the professions, and public affairs.
`(Goodman, 2005) 2: The study of a morally controversial
`practice, whereby the practice is described and analyzed,
`and moral principles andjudgments are applied, resulting
`in a set of recommendations. (Cook, 2005)
`
`Appreciative Settings
`A body of linked connotations of personal or collective
`interest, discrimination, and valuation which we bring to
`the exercise ofjudgment and which tacitly determine what
`we shall notice, how we shall discriminate situations of
`
`concern from the general confusion of an ongoing event,
`and how we shall regard them. (Vat, 2005a)
`
`Appreciative Systems
`
`the concepts of
`Developed by Vickers in the 19608,
`appreciative systems and ofappreciative inquiry go beyond
`the paradigm of goal seeking to explain the processes of
`social activity,
`including decision making and action.
`Vickers criticized the reductionism of the perspective of
`focusing exclusively on goals, which he thought would
`be adequate to explain the ‘behavior of rats in mazes’.
`
`Copyright © 2007, Idea Group lnc., distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission oflGl is prohibited.
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`This material may be protected by Copyright law (Title 17 U.S. Code)
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`190
`
`Distributed Expertise - Distributed Work
`
`Distributed Expertise
`Cognition and knowing are distributed over individuals,
`their tools, environments, and networks. (Muukkonen et
`al., 2005)
`
`Distributed Hash Table (DHT)
`A distributed index structure with hash table-like
`
`functionality for information location in the Internet-scale
`
`distributed computing environment. Given a key from a
`pre-specified flat identifier space, the DHT computes (in
`a distributed fashion) and returns the location of the node
`
`that stores the key. (Shahabi & Banaei-Kashani, 2005)
`
`Distributed Knowledge Management Approach
`A knowledge management approach based on the duality
`of perspective making and taking, the localization and
`centralization of knowledge, and the autonomy and
`coordination of organizational units. In this approach,
`subjectivity and sociality are considered as potential
`sources of value rather than as problems to overcome.
`(Cuel et al., 2006)
`
`Distributed Knowledge Management Model
`The model that combines the interdependence of one
`partial product state model to others, with the idea of
`
`knowledge acquisition rather than just the operational
`exchange relationship. (Metaxiotis, 2006)
`
`Distributed Knowledge Management System
`A knowledge management system that supports two
`qualitatively different processes:
`the autonomous
`
`management ofknowledge locally produced within asingle
`unit, and the coordination of the different units without
`
`centrally defined semantics. (Cuel et al., 2006)
`
`Distributed Learning
`1: A student-centered approach to learning that
`incorporates the use oftechnology in the learning process
`and emphasizes four educational characteristics:
`(1)
`supports different learning styles by using mixed media,
`(2) builds on the learner’s perspective through interactive
`educational experiences, (3) builds learning skills and
`social skills through collaboration among learners and
`with the community, and (4) integrates the learning into
`daily life by doing authentic tasks. (Rahman, 2005a) 2:
`A type of learning made possible by technology that is
`dependent neither on place nor time. Distributed learning
`allows students and instructors to be at different locations
`
`at the same or different times. (Klein, 2005) 3: Consists
`
`oflearning situations in which the students and instructor
`are located in different localities. A bit broader than
`
`distance education, as it can be used to refer to both
`
`education and training. (Turoff et al., 2005b) 4: A set of
`pedagogical strategies that integrate face-to-face with
`
`online methodologies. (Ketelhut et al., 2005) 5: Using
`a wide range of information technologies to provide
`learning opportunities beyondthe bounds ofthetraditional
`classroom. (Dixon et al., 2005)
`
`Distributed Learning Environment
`A learning environment where participants are not co-
`located, and use computer-based technologies to access
`instruction and communicate with others. (Graham et
`al., 2005)
`
`Distributed Model with an Object-Oriented
`Approach
`
`Each object maintains its own state and characteristics,
`distinct from all others. (Gurau, 2005)
`
`Distributed Open Ontology
`Open ontology refers to the ontology that is represented
`in standard ways (knowledge representation language and
`structured documents) and can be accessed by standard
`interfaces. With the advent of 3W, encoding ontology
`definitions as distributed textual Web pages supported
`by Web description language and accessing methods is
`adopted. In e-learning systems, it is a sharing mechanism to
`provide commonly agreed understanding ofmu lti-faceted
`knowledge for all stakeholders and services on the Web in
`
`e-learning applications. (Liu & Koppelaar, 2005)
`
`Distributed Organization
`An organization that works across physical boundaries
`and time zones with multiple sites or offices. (Huq et al.,
`2006)
`
`Distributed System
`
`A system made up of components that may be obtained
`from a number of different sources, which together work
`as a single distributed system providing the run-time
`infrastructure supporting today’s networked computer
`applications. (Yow & Moertiyoso, 2005)
`
`Distributed Work
`
`Collaborative work carried out by several persons at
`different geographical locations. (Wiberg, 2005)
`
`Copyright © 2007, Idea Group lnc., distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission oflGl is prohibited.
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`Distribution Channel - DNA
`
`191
`
`Distribution Channel
`
`The sum of all organizations or parts of an organization
`that are involved in making a product or service available
`
`to a customer. Distribution channels can also apply media
`(e.g., the Internet orTV) in order to address customers. Also
`
`called Channel of Distribution. (Madlberger, 2006)
`
`Diversity/Flexibility/Tension
`Diversity, both in terms ofthe work assignments offered and
`the people one interacts with, and atolerance ofdifferences.
`
`In order to be tolerant of differences, flexibility is needed.
`Both diversity and flexibility can lead to creative tension.
`(Torres-Coronas & Gasco-Hernandez, 2005)
`
`
`
`Distribution Cycle Time
`The span of time between the beginning of the shipment
`pickup and the end of the shipment delivery. (Tyan,
`2006)
`
`Distribution List
`
`An e-mail list ofall participants inthe virtual environment
`
`who can be contacted as a totality or divided into specified
`sub-groups. (Coakes & Willis, 2005)
`
`Distributive Function
`
`An aggregate function F is cal led distributive ifthere exists
`
`a function g such that the value of F for an n-dimensional
`
`cuboid can be computed by applying g to the value of F in
`(n + l)—dimensional cuboid. (Abdulghani, 2005a)
`
`Distributive Function of a Telecenter
`
`Set of processes that a telecenter as an open social system
`carries out to fosterthe egalitariandistribution ofits benefits
`
`and [CT growth and integration into the community’s
`social dynamics. (Santos, 2005)
`
`Distributive Profile
`
`A part of a user’s profile that defines which documents
`
`(from the relevant ones) and how should be presented to
`him/her in a particular time moment. (Abramowicz et
`al., 2006)
`
`Distributor
`
`A self-employed individual or a company engaged in
`network marketing on behalf of a manufacturer. (D.
`Wright, 2005)
`
`Divergent Thinking Technique
`One of a number oftools used during the divergent phases
`of Creative Problem Solving to improve the generation of
`ideas, thoughts, or data without evaluation. These tools
`
`are classified according to their primary use of related or
`unrelated problem stimuli. Brainstorming, brainwriting,
`forced connections, analogies, and metaphors are some
`of the most used divergent thinking techniques. (Torres-
`Coronas & Gasco-Hernandez, 2005)
`
`Divide-and-Conquer
`A well-known algorithm design strategy where the dataset
`is partitioned into blocks and each block is processed
`independently. The resulting block-level (local) kernels
`are merged to realize the global output. It increases the
`
`efficiency of the algorithms in terms of both space and
`time requirements. (Murthy & Diday, 2005)
`
`Division of Knowledge
`The way inwhich knowledge is dispersed over organization
`members, groups, and departments. The division of
`knowledge varies from a low degree of differentiation
`(a high degree of redundancy) to a high degree of
`differentiation (a low degree of redundancy). (Berends
`et al., 2006)
`
`DK/NF: See Domain Key/Normal Form.
`
`DL: See Distance Learning.
`
`DM: See Data Mining.
`
`DMG: See Data-Mining Group.
`
`DML: See Data Manipulation Language.
`
`DMO: See Destination Marketing Organization.
`
`DMSS: See Decision-Making Support System.
`
`DMT: See Data-Mining Technology.
`
`DNA
`
`]: Deoxyribonucleic acid. DNA molecules carry the
`genetic information necessary for the organization and
`functioning ofmost living cells, and control the inheritance
`of characteristics. (Galitsky, 2005a) 2: Nucleic acid,
`constituting the genes, codifying proteins. (Liberati et
`al., 2005) 3: A specific sequence of deoxyribonucleotide
`units covalently joined through phosphodiester bonds.
`(Tsunoda et al., 2005)
`
`Copyright © 2007, Idea Group Inc, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission oflGl is prohibited.
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