Reactive Surfaces Ltd. LLP
`Ex. 1024 (Rozzell Attachment E)
`Reactive Surfaces Ltd. LLP v. Toyota Motor Corp.
`IPR2016-01914
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`

`

`
`
`363.25'8~-dc21
`
`
`2001025816
`
`
`
`
`Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
`__//“
`Advances in fingerprint technology / edited by Henry C. Lee. R.E. Gaensslen.--2nd ed.
`
`
`p. cm -— (CRC series in forensic and police science)
`Includes bibliographical references and index.
`ISBN 0-8493-0923—9 (alk. paper)
`1. Fingerprints. 2. Fingerprints-Data processing. I. Lee. Henry C. II. Gaensslen. R. E.
`
`
`(Robert E.) 111. Series.
`’1
` HV6074 .A43 2001
`
`This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reprinted material
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`Printed in the United States of America
`4 S 6 7 8 9 0
`Printed on acid-free paper
`
`
`
`
`The first edition or
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`in Forensic and P .4
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`

`

`Composition
`of Latent Print Residue
`
`ROBERT S. RAMOTOWSKI
`
`
`Contents
`
`
`Introduction ...................................................................................... 64
`Skin Anatomy.........................................................................
`..
`................ 64
`The Epidermis .......................................................................................... 65
`The Dermis ............................................................................................... 65
`Secretory Glands ............................................................................................. 68
`Eccrine Glands ......................................................................................... 69
`Inorganic Compounds ...................................................................... 69
`Amino Acids ...................................................................................... 70
`Proteins ........................................................................................ 71
`Lipids .....................................g............................................ 72
`Miscellaneous Constituents .............................................................. 72
`Sebaceous Glands ..................................................................................... 73
`Lipid Origin and Breakdown ........................................................... 75
`Chemical Composition of Sebum ................................................... 76
`Fatty Acids ......................................................................................... 76
`Phospholipids .................................................................................... 78
`Wax Esters .......................................................................................... 79
`Sterols ........................................................................................... 79
`Squalene ............................................................................................. 80
`Miscellaneous Organic Compounds ................................................ 80
`Apocrine Glands ................................................................................. 80
`Variation of Sebum Composition With Age of Donor................................ 81
`Newborns.................................................................................................. 82
`Young Children ........................................................................................ 83
`Adolescents ............................................................................................... 83
`Post-Adolescence ................................................................................ 84
`The Composition of Latent Print Residue.................................................... 85
`United Kingdom Home Office................................................................ 85
`
`Oak Ridge National Laboratory............................................... 86
`Pacific Northwest National Laboratory.................................................. 87
`Savannah River Technical Center Research............................................ 89
`Forensic Science Service .......................................................................... 9O
`
`
`0923—9/01/50006155
`
`by CRC Press LLC
`
`63
`
`
`
`

`

`
`
`64
`
`Advances in Fingerprint Technology, Second Edition
`
`DNA From Latent Prints ................................................................................ 91
`DNA From Blood Prints and Stains ............................................-........... 9 1
`
`DNA From Developed Latent Prints ................................................... 92
`
`Miscellaneous Compounds and Contaminants .................
`93
`Conclusions ..................................................................................................... 94
`References ........................................................................................................ 95
`
`Composition of Latent i3
`
`epithelium called the epi»
`150 pm. The underlying £5:
`connective tissue that can:
`of the skin contains most
`that produce sweat. Althu
`the mass of human skin.
`of the biochemical transit
`tures that extend into the»
`follicles, are also metaboiit
`
`The Epidermis
`
`The epidermis (Figure 33»:
`known as the stratum gerrt
`of columnar epitheliai eei
`spinosum. The stratum 571%:
`
`that are held together hf: is
`sum and stratum gemrinazé
`(named in honor of Marie»?
`fingerprint science pioneer
`fine structure of ridges an;
`As these cells appreaiir
`form the next layer, the 32:”;
`granules (the precursor of a
`
`are formed in this layer. a
`.
`nuclei are then either 3 '
`epidermal cell and an i. 5.
`penultimate layer, the ,
`2'
`sists primarily of eleidin
`34m.
`of the keratohyalin par: ”*4?
`layer, the stratum corneas-r.
`atin, which is the ultimate *a
`is continually sloughed at?
`it. It has been estimated flea:
`
`
`
`
`showing all of the iay‘rs of t
`
`The Dermis
`
`
`
`Introduction
`
`M T
`
`he composition of human perspiration has been studied and reported
`extensively in the medical literature. The medical community has analyzed
`sweat for many purposes, including attempts to diagnose certain diseases,
`such as cystic fibrosis, and studies of skin conditions, such as acne. Even the
`perfume and cosmetics industry has an interest in determining the precise
`chemical nature of perspiration and how it might interact with their personal
`hygiene products. However, the information ascertained in these studies does
`not begin to address the issue that is most critical for forensic scientists.
`Knowing the precise contents of the various skin glands does not accurately
`represent the nature of What is actually secreted onto substrates from the
`fingers and palms. In operational scenarios, numerous contaminants are present
`in the fingerprint deposit, including material from other glands, cosmetics,
`perfumes, and food residues. In addition, the secreted material is almost imme-
`diately altered by oxidative and bacterial degradation mechanisms. These factors
`are particularly important since crime scene technicians seldom encounter latent
`print deposits immediately after they are deposited by a perpetrator. However,
`there is little information available that describes how a latent print deposit
`changes with time. Thus, a more thorough understanding of these transforma—
`tions would allow forensic scientists to develop specific reagents for visualizing
`compounds known to be stable for long periods of time.
`
`Skin Anatomy
`
`is usually divided into two distinct layers. The outer layer is a stratified
`
`M S
`
`kin serves several functions, including regulation of body temperature,
`water retention, protection, sensation, excretion, imn‘iunity, blood reservoir,
`and synthesis of vitamin D (except where noted, the information in this
`section was obtained from Odlandl). The skin of an average adult exceeds
`2 m2 in area; yet, in most places it is no more than 2 mm thick. While the
`average thickness of epidermal skin varies little over most of the body, the
`thickness on the palms and soles can be as much as 0.4 to 0.6 mm. The skin
`
`

`

`arming, Second Edition
`
`Composition of Latent Print Residue
`
`65
`
`a................................... 91
`..................................... 91
`
`
`
`as studied and reported
`:csrnmunity has analyzed
`ragnose certain diseases,
`rs such as acne. Even the
`
`determining the precise
`{erect with their personal
`:ai‘é in these studies does
`a: far forensic scientists.
`
`and:does not accurately
`ntsis substrates from the
`
`‘entaminants are present
`istrier glands, cosmetics,
`mazerialis almostimme—
`nechanisms These factors
`5 seldom encounter latent
`
`s a perpetrator. However,
`a: a latent print deposit
`fling of these transforma—
`.eagents for visualizing
`«MA. .
`
`3 at" body temperature,
`”unit‘s? blood reservoir,
`
`tire information in this
`
`3: average adult exceeds
`i 2 mm thick. While the
`
`a: most of the body, the
`’3.g to 0.6 mm. The skin
`
`3ter layer is a stratified
`
`epithelium called the epidermis, which has an average thickness of 75 to
`150 pm. The underlying layer of skin is called the dermis, a dense fibroelastic
`connective tissue that constitutes the primary mass of the skin. This portion
`of the skin contains most of the specialized excretory and secretory glands
`that produce sweat. Although the dermis constitutes between 90 to 95% of
`the mass of human skin, the epidermis accounts for the major proportion
`of the biochemical transformations that occur in the skin (although struc-
`tures that extend into the dermis, such as the various sweat glands and hair
`follicles, are also metabolically important).
`
`The Epidermis
`
`The epidermis (Figure 3.1) consists of several cell layers.2 The innermost is
`known as the stratum germinativum (basal cell layer). It consists of one layer
`of columnar epithelial cells, which upon division push into the stratum
`spinosum. The stratum spinosum (prickle cell layer) consists of several layers
`that are held together by intercellular fibrils. The combined stratum spino—
`sum and stratum germinativum are often referred to as the Malpighian layer
`(named in honor of Marcello Malpighi, a 17th century Italian professor and
`fingerprint science pioneer who first used high magnification to detail the
`fine structure of ridges and pores).
`As these cells approach the skin surface, they begin to grow larger and
`form the next layer, the stratum granulosum (granular layer). Keratohyalin
`granules (the precursor of keratin, a fibrous, insoluble protein found in skin)
`are formed in this layer, which is approximately two to four cells thick. The
`nuclei are then either broken up or dissolved, resulting in the death of the
`epidermal cell and an increase in the number of cytoplasmic granules. The
`penultimate layer, the stratum lucidum (clear layer), is ill—defined and con-
`sists primarily of eleidin, which is presumed to be a transformation product
`of the keratohyalin present in the stratum granulosum. In the outermost
`layer, the stratum corneum (cornified layer), the eleidin is converted to ker—
`atin, which is the ultimate fate of the original epidermal cell. Keratin, which
`is continually sloughed off, must continuously be replaced by cells beneath
`it. It has been estimated that a typical individual will shed approximately 0.5
`to 1 g of dead skin cells per day.2 The total cell cycle in the epidermis is
`estimated to take approximately 28 days. Figure 3.2 is a stained skin section
`showing all of the layers of the epidermis.
`
`The Dermiss
`
`The dermis is a moderately dense fibroelastic connective tissue composed of
`collagen (a fibrous protein composed of primarily glycine, alanine, proline,
`and hydroxyproline), elastin fibers (a fibrous protein containing primarily
`
`seesawon»:
`
`
`
`’<ummmmmwwwm’
`
`is,
`
`s
`
`7%
`
`
`
`

`

`
`
`66
`
`Advances in Fingerprint Technology, Second Edition
`
`Composition of Latent Pr:
`
`
`
`SPINOUS LAYER
`
`
`
`MAL LAYER
`
`
`\,
`AA A; ;
`Baal Lamina
`
`W
`
`Figure 3.1 A schematic diagram showing the layers of the epidermis. (From The
`Structure and Function of Skin, 3rd Edition, Montagna, W. and Parakkal, RE,
`Eds., Academic Press, 1974. With permission.)
`
`glycine, alanine, valine, and lysine), and an interfibrillar gel of glycosamin-
`proteoglycans, salts, and water. This layer contains up to five million secretory
`glands, including eccrine, apocrine, and sebaceous glands} Collagen fibers
`form an irregular meshwork that is roughly parallel'to the epidermal surface
`and provides skin tensile strength and resistance to mechanical stress. Elastin
`gives skin its elasticity and its ability to resume its natural shape after defor-
`mation. Fibrous mats of elastin are intermeshed with collagen to give skin
`its tension. This tension is greatest over body areas where the skin is thin and
`elastin is abundant (e.g., the scalp and face). Fibroblasts, which form elastin
`and collagen, and histiocytes, which form interferon for protection against
`
`
`
`Figure 3.2 A stained semis-n
`layers. Section A is the 5133‘
`section C is the stratum gra
`The structure evident in tire
`
`
`gland. (From The Structure
`Parakkal, P.F., Eds, Academzi;
`
`viral infections, are present
`nerve vessels is also present,
`The dermis is divided 3
`
`and the pars reticularis. The
`dermal layer and contains 5
`collagen fibrils than does tit
`numerous capillaries, which
`via diffusion. The second :5
`
`illary dermis and comprises
`collagenous and elastic :3
`arranged predominately in
`surface, although some tang
`
`
`Mrshwaemmwhwmgq
`
`

`

`whinging}; Second Edition
`
`Composition of Latent Print Residue
`
`67
`
`
`SK “YER
`
`I»
`,
`.
`.
`,
`are" me epidermis. (From The
`mg W‘ and Parakkal’ P‘F“
`
`332317213 gel of glycosamin-
`up to five million secretory
`zé glands.2 Collagen fibers
`3% to the epidermal surface
`it mechanical stress. Elastin
`natural shape after defor-
`with collagen to give skin
`where the skin is thin and
`£33353, which form elastin
`
`son for protection against
`
`Figure 3.2 A stained section of the epidermis from the palm showing all of the
`layers. Section A is the Stratum corneum, section B is the stratum lucidum,
`
`section C is the stratum granulosum, and section D is the stratum malpighii.
`‘ The structure evident in the stratum corneum is the duct of an eccrine sweat
`
`gland. (From The Structure and Function of Skin, 3rd Edition, Montagna, W. and
`
`Parakkal, RE, Eds, Academic Press, 1974. With permission.)
`viral infections, are present in this layer. A system of blood, lymphatic, and
`
`nerve vessels is also present.
`
`The dermis is divided into two anatomical regions, the pars papillaris
`
`and the pars reticularis. The papillary dermis is the outermost portion of the
`
`' dermal layer and contains smaller and more loosely distributed elastin and
`
`collagen fibrils than does the reticular dermis. The papillae are supplied by
`
`
`, numerous capillaries, which ultimately supply nourishment to the epidermis
`via diffusion. The second region, the reticular dermis, lies beneath the pap-
`
`, illary dermis and comprises the bulk of this layer. It is characterized by dense
`
`tollagenous and elastic connective tissue. These collagen bundles are
`
`arranged predominately in interwoven strands that are parallel to the skin
`
`Surface, although some tangentially oriented bundles are present.
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`

`

`
` Eccrine {'1
`Vanna
`
`Inorganic Compounds
`
`Although eccrine sweat is
`numerous organic and mar
`on the skin surface causes. a
`have been modeled and ages
`has been reported to be 9:.
`surfaces by particular in r;
`in patients suffering front
`sweat production. The rate
`on the amount of water urge
`effect on the relationship a
`been reported to contain 3:?
`times higher than plasma ie
`inorganic substances have a
`
` a
`
`Figure 3.3 A schematic diagram of the three major secretory glands in relation
`to other cutaneous appendages. (From The Structure and Function of Skin, 3rd
`Edition, Montagna, W. and Parakkal, P.F., Eds, Academic Press, 1974. With
`permission.)
`
`Secretory Glands
`
`The three major glands (eccrine, apocrine, and sebaceous) responsible for
`the secretion of “sweat” are shown in Figure 3.3. The eccrine glands are
`usually found throughout the body, but the highest densities ’are f0und in
`the palms and soles. The sebaceous glands are typically localized to regions
`containing hair follicles, as well as the face and scalp. The apocrine glands
`
`68
`
`Advances in Fingerprint Technology, Second Edition
`
`Composition of Latent E}:
`
`are found primarily in the
`However, in most instances
`
`significantly to the latent
`is approximately 99% was:
`of chemical compounds art
`compounds (303 of which
`residuesfl'S
`
`Eccrine Glands
`
`There are between two as:
`
`throughout the human is
`information was obtained
`
`to have an estimated weigh
`100 g. In normal individna
`as 2 to 4 L of fluid per hour~
`approximately 18 kcal/nsiez
`faster than any other min:
`of the feet (620/cm2) and i
`mation begins around the
`about 5 months for the r:
`
`matured by the eighth feted;
`shaped structure with a tie;
`into the dermis layer. The z.
`is to reabsorb sodium, chin:
`7-:A51
`solutes. Under normal co
`1,«a1;:
`the skin surface without 2
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`

`ante-tog}: Second Edition
`
`Composition of Latent Print Residue
`
`69
`
`
`
`W Piéi
`
`excretory glands in relation
`Ltd Function of Skin, 3rd
`aiemic Press, 1974. With
`
`imceous) responsible for
`. The eccrine glands are
`'5: densities are found in
`
`insight localized to regions
`a}; The apocrine glands
`
`are found primarily in the axillary regions (e.g., armpits and genital areas).
`However, in most instances, only the eccrine and sebaceous glands contribute
`significantly to the latent print deposit. Although the composition of sweat
`is approximately 99% water,3 studies have shown that a considerable variety
`of chemical compounds arepresent. A recent study found approximately 346
`compounds (303 of which were positively identified) present in surface skin
`residues.“
`
`Eecrine Glands
`
`There are between two and four million eccrine sweat glands distributed
`throughout the human body surface (except where noted, the following
`information was obtained from Quintonfi). Each gland has been calculated
`to have an estimated weight of 30 to 40 pg, for an aggregate weight of about
`100 g. In normal individuals, these glands are capable of secreting as much
`as 2 to 4 L of fluid per hour. The evaporation of this quantity of sweat requires
`approximately 18 kcal/min, which affords humans an ability to dissipate heat
`faster than any other animal. Sweat glands are most abundant on the soles
`of the feet (620/cm3) and least abundant on the back (64/cm2).7 Gland for-
`mation begins around the third fetal month on the palms and soles and at
`about 5 months for the rest of the body. Typically, the glands have fully
`matured by the eighth fetal month. The eccrine gland is essentially a tubular
`shaped structure with a duct portion that coils in helical fashion down deep
`into the dermis layer. The function of the distal half of the sweat gland tubule
`is to reabsorb sodium, chloride, bicarbonate, glucose, and several other small
`solutes. Under normal conditions, this allows water to be evaporated from
`the skin surface without the loss of essential solutes.
`
`Inorganic Compounds
`Although eccrine sweat is usually in excess of 98% water, it also contains
`numerous organic and inorganic constituents. The presence of these solutes
`on the skin surface causes a reduction in sweat vapor pressure. These effects
`have been modeled and quantified.8 Excess secretion of certain chloride salts
`has been reported to be a cause for increased rates of corrosion of metal
`surfaces by particular individuals.9 This effect was particularly pronounced
`in patients suffering from hyperhidrosis, a condition which causes excess
`sweat production. The rate of eccrine sweating has been shown to depend
`on the amount ofwater ingested, but does not appear to exert an independent
`effect on the relationship of sweat composition to sweat rate.10 Sweat has
`been reported to contain 0.5 to 8 mM total ammonia,” which is 20 to 50
`times higher than plasma levels. In addition, trace amounts of the following
`inorganic substances have also been detected in sweat: magnesium, iodide
`
`-,
`
`‘Wammamsmmmwmsmwaaamwm
`
`
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`

`
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`70
`
`Advances in Fingerprint Technology, Second Edition
`
`Composition of Latent P:
`
`(5 to 12 lag/L), bromide (0.2 to 0.5 mg/L), fluoride (0.2 to 1.18 mg/L), phos—
`phate (10 to 17 mg/L), sulfate (7 to 190 mg/L), iron (1 to 70 mg/L),12 zinc,
`copper, cobalt, lead, manganese, molybdenum, sulfur, tin, and mercury.”15
`Interestingly, the eccrine gland is one of the target organs for cystic
`fibrosis. Historically, this condition has been diagnosed on the basis of ele-
`vated sodium chloride concentration in sweat. In general, the sweat sodium
`ion concentration appears to be isotonic to that of human plasma, although
`significant variations can be obtained depending on the method of collection
`(e.g., thermal vs. pharmacologically induced sweat).16 One study found that
`the sodium concentration varied over a rather large range, from 34 to 266
`mEq/L. Others reported the average concentration at 140 i- 1.8 mEq/U and
`60 mEq/L.17 The latter source reported that the chloride concentration is
`generally lower than that of sodium, averaging around 46 mEq/L, and that
`the potassium level ranged from 5 to 59 mEq/L. In general, chloride levels
`are isotonic with those in plasma.18 Other studies have determined the potas—
`sium levels to be between 4.9 to 8.3 mEq/L16 and 8.8 mlEiq/L.19 The amount
`of calcium in sweat was found to be about 3.4 mEq/L and the amount of
`
`-
`.
`magnesium was 1.2 mEq/L.
`The HCOg-CO2 buffer system appears to play a critical role in maintain—
`ing sweat pH. The pH of sweat isolated from human secretory coils (in the
`dermis) is approximately 7.2, while the pH of sweat secreted from the gland
`can vary from as low as 5.0 (at a low sweat rate) up to 6.5 to 7.0 (at a high
`sweat rate). This indicates that the duct itself acidifies the sweat, presumably
`by reabsorbing bicarbonate and/or secreting H” in exchange for a Na+ ion.20
`At low sweat rates, this mechanism can conserve bicarbonate (and other
`solutes) efficiently and thus maintain a slightly acidic sweat pH. At higher
`sweat rates, the mechanism is overwhelmed and cannot reabsorb solutes
`effectively. This results in secreted sweat containing higher amounts of bicar-
`bonate and thus it has a higher pH. The typical bicarbonate concentration
`has been reported to be between 15 to 20 mM.
`
`Amino Acids
`
`Of critical importance to latent print visualization with ninhydrin is the
`concentration of amino acids and proteins. The total amount of amino acids
`present in a print has been reported to be between 0.3 to 2.59 mg/L.” The
`first amino acid found in eccrine sweat was serine,. isolated as B-naphtha—
`linesulfoserine by using a microbiological method, and was reported by
`meden and Tachau in 1910. A study of samples of pharmacologically
`induced sweat (using pilocarpine hydrochloride) collected after a hygienic
`bath yielded 22 amino acids.“ Amino acid amounts in sweat have been
`reported to be several times higher than corresponding values in plasma.22
`One study found the most abundant amino acids to be serine and alanine,
`
`Table 3.1 A Sums
`(Serine Ratio) of A:
`
`Serine
`
`Glycine
`Ornithine
`
`(Ornithine, lysine;
`Alanine
`
`Aspartic acid
`Threonine
`Histidine
`Valine
`Leucine
`Isoleucine
`Glutamic acid
`
`Lysine
`Phenylalanine
`Tyrosine
`
`15.44 and 14.63 mg%, reap
`participants found that ‘1:
`most abundant amino acts
`others.7-4‘26
`
`Quantitatively, amine
`times depending on coiie;
`exercise—induced sweat; an
`
`paring sweat samples obta
`some significant differences
`higher amounts of amine .
`differences appeared to be
`levels, suggesting that
`9%:
`filtration from the blood
`
`acid abundance values fret
`
`series of ninhydrin positive
`eccrine sweat.30 Some of the:
`
`ine sulfoxide, Ot-amino—ise
`
`iii-at:
`acid, cystathionine,
`butyric acid, and carnesiae
`
`Proteins
`
`The total protein content is
`to 25 mg/dL. One study an
`sensitive silver staining for:
`specific examples determira
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`

`

`strategy, Second Edition
`
`Composition of Latent Print Residue
`
`71
`
`:23 to 1.18 mg/L), phos-
`3 53 to 70 mtg/1.),”- zinc,
`2:: tin, and mercury.”15
`target organs for cystic
`3:326 on the basis of ele—
`
`eae-rai. the sweat sodium
`
`suntan plasma, although
`the method of collection
`
`. 3 One study found that
`:2 range, from 34 to 266
`at :13 i 1.8 mEq/L7 and
`ideride concentration is
`
`33‘ 46 mEq/L, and that
`3 general, chloride levels
`:2 determined the potas—
`A mlEq/L.19 The amount
`
`E and the amount of
`
`critical role in maintain-
`
`an secretory coils (in the
`: secreted from the gland
`7; to 6.5 to 7.0 (at a high
`222 the sweat, presumably
`exchange for a Na+ ion?3
`- 1incarbonate (and other
`
`i6: sweat pH. At higher
`cannot reabsorb solutes
`
`higher amounts of bicar-
`icarhonate concentration
`
`2:: with ninhydrin is the
`a: amount of amino acids
`
`3 232.3, to 2.59 mg/L.” The
`e. isolated as B—naphtha—
`:6 and was reported by
`2:25 of pharmacologically
`reflected after a hygienic
`ants in sweat have been
`
`36332.5; values in plasma.22
`as: he serine and alanine,
`
`Table 3.1 A Summary of the Relative Abundance
`(Serine Ratio) of Amino Acids in Fingerprint Deposits
`Hamilton28 Hadorn et 31.37 Oro and Skewes29
`
`
`100
`100
`100
`Serine
`59
`54
`“ 67
`Glycine
`45
`45
`32
`Ornithine
`45
`47
`42
`(Ornithine, lysine)
`28
`35
`27
`Alanine
`22
`11
`22
`Aspartic acid
`18
`9
`17
`Threonine
`14
`13
`17
`Histidine
`9
`10
`12
`Valine
`10
`7
`10
`Leucine
`8
`6
`8
`Isoleucine
`5
`12
`8
`Glutamic acid
`—
`5
`10
`Lysine
`5
`5
`7
`Phenylalanine
`
`Tyrosine 5 6 3
`
`
`
`35.44 and 14.63 mg%, respectively. Another study of both active and inactive
`participants found that in both cases, serine, glycine, and alanine were the
`most abundant amino acids.23 A similar trend was also. reported by several
`others.”26
`
`Quantitatively, amino acid concentrations can vary as much as 2 to 20
`times depending on collection methods (e.g., thermally induced sweat vs.
`exercise-induced sweat) and by sample location on the body. A study com—
`paring sweat samples obtained from the back and hands of subjects found
`some significant differences.27 The samples from the backs of subjects showed
`higher amounts of amino acids involved in the urea cycle. These and other
`-_ differences appeared to be independent of plasma and urine amino acid
`ie‘vels, suggesting that amino acids do not appear in sweat as a result of
`filtration from the blood plasma. Table 3.1 summarizes the relative amino
`acid abundance values from several different studies. One study reported a
`series of ninhydrin positive substances, in addition to amino acids, in human
`eccrine sweat.30 Some of these substances include o-phosphoserine, methion—
`ine sulfoxide, oc—amino-isobutyric acid, glucosamine, a—amino-n-valeric
`acid, cystathionine, B-amino—isobutyric acid, ethanolamine, y—amino-
`butyric acid, and carnosine.
`
`Proteins
`
`The total protein content in sweat has been determined to range between 15
`to 25 mg/dL. One study using two-dimensional electrophoresis and ultra-
`sensitive silver staining found over 400 polypeptide components.“ Some
`specific examples determined by sodium dodecyl sulfate polyacrylamide gel
`
`diufifiams..mm...x.A
`
`we,5
`
`
`
`aMLa23.23.a:
`
`
`
`

`

`
`
`72
`
`Advances in Fingerprint Technology, Second Edition
`
`Composition of Latent Print Resit
`
`electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE) include albumin, Zn~oc2-glycoprotein,
`lysozyme, and the al-acid glycoprotein orosomucoid.32 An agarose gel iso—
`tachophoresis analysis of thermally induced sweat detected transferrin, fast-
`migrating y—globulins, o:- and B-lipoproteins, and several glycoproteins.33 It
`has been determined by size fractionation HPLC that the bulk of the peptides
`in sweat are in the low end of the molecular weight range. Secretion of higher
`molecular weight proteins (i.e., in excess of 10,000 Da) has been reported to
`increase as the rate of sweating increases
`
`.
`
`Lipids
`
`The lipid content of secretions from the eccrine gland has also been investi-
`gated.34 Contamination of samples by lipids of sebaceous and epidermal
`origin is a major consideration in these analyses. In this particular study, thin
`layer chromatography was used to separate the lipid fraction collected from
`both “clean” and “scraped” sweat samples. Results indicated that the
`“scraped” samples contained a significant amount of lipids that were consis-
`tent with those found in the stratum corneum. In contrast, the “clean” sam-
`ples collected using the method described by Boysen et al.35 contained only
`one significant lipid band, which corresponded to the cholesterol/fatty acid
`standard. In the samples collected, fatty acid concentrations ranged from less
`than 0.01 to 0.1 ug/mL and sterol concentrations ranged from less than 0.01
`to 0.12 ug/mL. These results would indicate that “scraped” samples were
`contaminated by lipids from the epidermis, while “clean” samples gave a more
`realistic characterization of eccrine lipids.
`
`Miscellaneous Constituents
`
`Lactate and urea have been reported at significant levels in perspiration. The
`amounts of these compounds can vary from 30 to 40 mM at low sweat rates
`to as low as 10 to 15 mM at higher rates.13 Other miscellaneous components
`of eccrine sweat include creatine, creatinine,36 glucose (0.2 to 0.5 mg/dL),
`pyruvate (0.2 to 1.6 mM), CAMP, phenobarbitone, and immunoglobulins.37
`Numerous enzymes have also been detected in dissected sweat glands, includ-
`ing alkaline phosphatase, acid phosphatase, Na/K ATPase, phosphatidic acid
`phosphatase, monoamine oxidase, acetyl cholinesterase, and lactic, malic,
`glucose-é—phosphate, isocitric, and succinic dehydrogenases.
`Drugs have also been found in eccrine sweat}8 Sulfonamides, antipyrine,
`and aminopyrine were found to exhibit sweat concentrations that were
`directly proportional to plasma levels. Simple diffusion, aided by the relatively
`low ionization of the drugs studied within the physiological pH range, was
`assumed to be the mechanism by which these drugs entered the sweat glands.
`Another study found that L-dimethylamphetamine as well as its metabolite
`L—methamphetamine were found to be excreted in sweat.39 After taking 25 mg
`
`34—266 mEq/L
`
`Table 3.2 A Summary of the ComM
`Inorganic (major)
`Sodium
`Potassium
`Calcium
`Iron
`Chloride
`Fluoride
`Bromide
`Iodide
`Bicarbonate
`Phosphate
`Sulfate
`Ammonia
`
`4.9-8.8 mEq/I.
`3.4 mEq/L
`1—70 mg/L
`0.52—7 mg/ml.
`0.2—1.18 mg/l.
`0.2«05 ing/L
`5—12 ug/L
`15—20 mM
`10—17 mg/L
`7—190 mg/L~
`0.5—8 mM
`
`0.3—2.59 mg/I.
`15-25 mg/d1
`0.2—0.5 mgi’dl.
`30—40 mA/I
`10—15 mM
`0.2—1.6 mM
`
`Organic (general)
`Amino acids
`Proteins
`Glucose
`Lactate
`Urea
`Pyruvate
`Creatine
`Creatinine
`
`Glycogen
`Uric a