BAKER HUGHES INCORPORATED
`Exhibit 1022
`
`Page 1 of 10
`
`

`
`
`
`Pan American Petroleum Corporation
`
`C. R. Fast
`
`Research Group Supervisor
`
`Pan American Petroleum Corporation
`
`
`
`Henry L. Doherty Memorial Fund of AIME
`
`Society of Petroleum Engineers of AIME
`
`New York
`
`1970
`
`Dallas
`
`Page 2 of 10
`Page 2 of 10
`
`Hydraulic Fracturing
`
`G. C. Howard
`
`Special R esearch Associate
`
`

`
` l l l 1
`
`DEDICATIO-N_
`
`We wish to dedicate this book to our wives, Anne
`and Virginia, without whose cooperation this book
`would not have been possible.
`
`© Copyright 1970 by the American institute of Mining. Metal-
`lurgicai, and Petroleum Engineers.
`Inc. Printed in the United
`States of America by Millet the Printer, Dallas, Tex. All rights
`reserved. This book, or parts thereof, cannot be reproduced
`without written consent of the publisher.
`
`Page 3 of 10
`Page 3 of 10
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`

`
`
`
`HYDRAULIC FRACTURING
`
`judging the relative merits of various hydraulic frac-
`turing treating procedures and the results to be ex-
`pected from such a stimulation method. In other words,
`this Monograph is a basic reference book and a working
`text for the practicing engineer.
`
`1.3 Historical Background
`
`injection pressure decreases when
`that
`The fact
`water, acid, cement or oil
`is pumped into a formation
`at a high rate and at a high initial pressure has been
`the subject of a number of studies.
`
`Acidizing of Oil and Gas Wells
`
`The Pure Oil Co. in cooperation with Dow Chemical
`Co. performed the first acidizing of an oil well (Feb.
`11, 1932) on Pure’s Fox No. 6 well
`in Midland
`
`County, Mich. A 15 percent (by weight) hydrochloric
`acid with an arsenic inhibitor was used. By" 1934,
`acidizing was an accepted practice for well stimulation
`in areas where the producing formation was limestone.
`From 1945 to 1963, the technological improvements
`in acidizing were basically limited to the development
`of acid fracturing techniques and materials, and to
`the use of surfaceactive agents. No change in acid
`composition was noted during this period. As a result
`of the development of high-pressure, high—rate pump-
`ing equipment, oil and gas wells were acidized at
`fracture inducing rates and pressures.”-‘
`Fitzgerald. In his comments on I. B. Clark’s paper
`on the Hydrafrac process“, P. E. Fitzgerald reflected the
`thinking of many engineers when he stated that pressure
`parting or formation lifting played an important part in
`the treatment of many wells where fluids were injected.
`The pressure parting phenomenon had long been
`recognized in well acidizing operations. For example,
`at pressures below those required to lift
`the over-
`burden,
`the formation would take substantially no
`fluid, but when a pressure high enough to part or
`fracture the formation was reached,
`the rate of fluid
`injection could be raised with little or no increase
`in the injection pressure.
`After the acid entered the formation the chemical
`
`thus further enlarg-
`reaction dissolved the formation,
`ing the established fracture. Since the characteristics
`of the rock are not uniform, more rock was dissolved
`by the acid in some places than in others,
`so that
`when the treatment was concluded the pressure—parted
`fracture could not completely close,
`and remained
`open to serve as a flow channel
`to the well.
`
`Water Injection
`
`Dickey and Ancferscu. From their study of water
`input wells, Dickey and Andersen‘ concluded that
`when the pressure at
`the bottom of an input well
`was raised above a certain value,
`the well
`took much
`more water than it normally would take. This critical
`pressure at the sand face ranges between 1.0 and 1.7
`psi per foot of depth in the northwestern Pennsylvania
`
`and eastern Illinois oil and gas fields (260 to 2,075 ft).
`The critical pressure also was observed to vary with
`depth and was, therefore, some function of the weight
`of the overlying rock. Assuming the specific gravity
`of water-saturated sedimentary rocks to be about 2.2,
`the pressure of the overburden would be approximately
`1.0 psi per foot of depth.
`these break-
`Dickey and Andersen concluded that
`throughs, or breaks in injection pressure, were the
`result of a rupture or fracture of the formation.
`Grebe. In the same vein, Grebe“ reported in 1943
`that a sand formation in a well 810 ft deep was broken
`down with a brine solution at a surface pressure of
`720 psi. Backflow tests indicated that
`there was an
`exact balance at 360 psi (surface pressure) at which
`water would go in or out of the formation with very
`little pressure change. The weight of the earth above
`the point of formation fracture was determined by
`adding 360 psi
`to the head of 810 ft of brine. The
`average density of the earth proved to be about 2.2
`(09548 psi/ft).
`Grebe cited another case: a well 3,000 it deep in
`which a formation breakdown was observed at a sur-
`
`face pressure of 1,500 psi while the well was being
`acidized. The formation lifting factor was calculated
`to be 0.968 psi/ft.
`Yuster and Cafhoim. In their study of pressure part-
`ing of formations in watertlood operations, Yuster and
`Calhoun“ observed that overburden lifting does not
`mean that
`the entire overburden from a given input
`point to the surrounding producers is lifted by the water
`and actually floated on it.
`(While such a situation is
`
`theoretically possible, it would be the very rare excep-
`tion rather than the rule.) Lifting of the overburden
`was defined as the parting of the rock or matrix at
`any bedding plane by the injection of fluid at pressures
`in excess of
`those tending to hold the
`formation
`together.
`The implication that
`
`the downward force in a lift-
`
`the complete weight of the overburden
`ing process is
`does not necessarily hold true at all
`times. The force
`depends upon the physical condition of the overlying
`strata and is controlled by such factors as plasticity,
`compressibility, elasticity, and attitude of
`the strata.
`An analogy may illustrate this point. If the overburden
`were made up of 21 series of pillows topped by a series
`of books,
`it would be possibie to part
`the formation
`locally by compressing the pillow or pillows upward
`and/or downward without
`lifting the
`entire over-
`burden. The point or elevation of the wellhore where
`the formation has the lowest tensile strength wilt break
`first, while other fractures may occur if
`the pressure
`is great enough.
`If a
`fracture initiated by excessive pressures has
`impermeable boundaries,
`it will continue to advance
`into the formation until it reaches a sink or barrier.
`Yustcr and Calhoun“ further stated that
`if one or
`
`both boundaries of the horizontal fracture formed by
`Page 4 of 10
`Page 4 of 10
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`

`
`
`
`3
`
`in which the cement slurry can lodge beyond the wall
`of the hole. This phenomenon has been confirmed from
`cores of sand formations in sidetracked holes adjacent
`to sections of hole that have been squeezed previously.
`The cores reveal that the cement slurry sets as rela-
`tively thin laminations between the individual
`sand
`beds.
`
`Rock samples (Fig. 1.1) recovered in shallow well
`squeezc—cementing tests” illustrate this parting of the
`formation.
`
`In their investigation of
`Teplitz and Hassebroek.
`squeeze cementing, Teplitz and Hassebroelcm observed
`that to inject the cement slurry injection pressures must
`be great enough to lift the overlying formations. This al-
`lows the cement slurry to How into the parting between
`the formations in a pancake shape and form a barrier
`tojvertical movement of fluids in the formation sur-
`rounding the casing. Teplitz and I-Iassebroek reasoned
`that it would be advisable to stop the injection of ce-
`ment shortly aftcr the pressure against
`the formation
`has exceeded that of the overburden, and after a reason-
`able quantity of cement has been forced out,
`since
`prolonged injection of cement at high pressure can only
`fracture the zone to a degree detrimental to the well.
`The sand core pictured in Fig. 1.2 demonstrates the
`results of such harmful action. This core was obtained
`
`from the producing horizon in a sidetracked well after
`the original hole had been subjected to a number of
`squeeze jobs. According to the best estimates,
`the lat-
`eral displacement of this core from the squeeze zone in
`the original well was approximately 21 ft. It should be
`noted that the prominent cement vein runs perpendicu-
`lar to the plane of bedding in the sand.
`A microscopic examination of the core revealed a
`thin filter cake, containing barites, between the cement
`and the face of the sand; but no trace of cement or mud
`
`INTRODUCTION
`
`excessive pressure were permeable, the fracture would
`extend into the formation until the friction of the fluid
`
`flowing into it caused just enough drop in pressure to
`create a balance between the pressure in the liquid and
`the combined counter-force of the tensile strength of the
`formation and the downward pressure of the overbur-
`den.
`
`In a second article on waterflooding, Yuster and Cal-
`houn? concluded that
`the parting of
`formations in
`waterllood operations is indicated by a sudden increase
`in the rate of input without a corresponding increase in
`pressure. A graph of water input rate vs pressure might
`even show, at the point where parting or fracturing of
`the formation occurs, a definite decrease in injection
`pressure.
`
`The formation parting factor for injection wells‘-in
`the Bradford and Allegheny fields Pennsylvania
`varied from 0.8 to 1.4 psi/ft. The low parting fac-
`tors were confined generally to wells on the crest of the
`structure while the higher parting factors were as-
`sociated with wells low on the structure. A plot of these
`factors vs depth indicated a trend of decreasing factors
`with increasing depth.
`As a side—light to their study of waterflooding, Yuster
`and Calhoun noted that for successful acidizing_ and
`squeeze—ccmcnting operations, pressures must be high
`enough to part the formation.
`
`Squeeze Cementing
`
`Torrey. Early recognition of the fracturing pheno-
`menon in squeeze cementing was reported by P. D.
`Torreyfi‘ He presented geological and engineering in-
`formation to show that the fluid pressures involved in
`squeeze cementing part the rocks, generally along bed-
`ding planes or other lines of sedimentary weakness.
`The fracture formed provides channels or passageways
`
`i1
`
`i I I
`
`iI
`
`\ Il
`
`1'
`
`RED CHEMENT
`(FIRST JOB)
`
`SANDS TONE
`
`(SECOND JOB)
`
`YELLOW CEMENT
`
`BLACK CEMENT
`
`(THiRD JOB)
`
`Fig. 1.1 Relative iocation of cement pancakes on three successive squeeze cementing operations.
`Page 5 of 10
`Page 5 of 10
`
`

`
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`
`I
`
`..
`
`II
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`I
`'
`
`I
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`1
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`'1
`
`I
`
`|
`l
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`|
`
`|
`“
`1
`
`|
`'
`
`'
`|
`
`l
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`1
`
`,
`
`I
`
`l
`
`I
`
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