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`Contents
`
`1 Semiconductor Crystals
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`1.1 Crystals and Crystallographic Orientations
`
`1.2 The Silicon Crystal
`1.2.1 Crystal Growth
`1.2.2 Crystal Doping
`1.2.3 Defects in Silicon Crystals
`
`.
`1.3 Wafer Preparation
`1.3.1 Wafer Type and Orientation
`1.3.2 Axial and Radial Variations
`
`1.4 Compound Semiconductors
`1.4.1 Crystal Growth
`1.4.2 Impurities and Crystal Doping
`
`2 Thermal Oxidation and Nitridation
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`N
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`
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`L»MMuii-3'3;axu-SGsooax
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`39
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`2.1 SiO, and S102-Si Interface
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`2.1.1 Properties and Structure of SiO2
`2.1.2 Properties and Structure of the SiO;-Silntcrface
`
`2.2 Thermal Oxidation
`2.2.1 Oxidation Reactions
`2.2.2 Oxidation Kinetics
`
`2.2.3 Initial Oxidation Stage
`2.2.4 Oxidation Systems
`2.2.5 Second-Order Effects in Oxidation Kinetics
`2.2.6 Eflects of Oxidation on Silicon
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`4.2 Resolution Enhancement Techniques
`4.2.1 Optical Phase-Shifting
`4.2.2 Ofi'-Axis (or Oblique) Illumination
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`4.3 Electron-Beam Lithography
`4.3.1 Proximity Eflects
`4.3.2 Electron-Beam Exposure Systems
`4.3.3 Electron Resists
`
`4.4 X—Ray Lithography
`4.4.1 X-Ray Masks
`4.4.2 X-Ray Sources
`4.4.3 Imaging
`4.4.4 X-Ray Resists and Resolution
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`4.5 Ion-Beam Lithography
`4.5.1 Ion-Beam Exposure
`4.5.2 Ion Sources
`4.5.3 Pattern Definition
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`5 Contamination Control and Etch
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`5.1 Clean Processes
`5.1.1 Contaminants
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`5.1.2 Wet Cleaning
`5.1.2 Dry Cleaning
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`5.2 Etching
`5.2.1 Wet Etching
`5.2.2 Dry Etching
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`6 Ion Implantation
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`6.1 Principle of Operation
`6.1.1 Ion Sources
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`vii
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`225
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`8 Contact and Interconnect Technology
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`8.1 Contact Metallurgy
`8.1.1 The Aluminum Silicon Contact
`8.1.2 Contact Materials and Baniers
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`8.2 Poly-Metal Dielectrics
`8.2.1 Dielectric Composition
`8.2.2 Planarization Techniques
`8.2.3 Contact Definition
`
`8.3 Metal Interconnects
`
`8.3.1 Metal Deposition
`8.3.2 Contact Fill and Metal Patterning
`
`8.4 Inter-Level Dielectrics
`
`8.5 Multi-Level Metals
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`8.6 Reliability Considerations
`8.6.1 Electromigration
`8.6.2 Stress Migration (Creep)
`8.6.3 Corrosion
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`ix
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`527
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`Preface
`
`The drive toward new semiconductor technologies is intricately
`related to market demands for cheaper, smaller, faster, and more
`reliable circuits with lower power consumption. The development
`of new processing tools and technologies is aimed at optimizing
`one or more of these requirements. This goal can, however, only
`be achieved by a concerted effort between scientists, engineers,
`technicians, and operators in research, development, and manufac-
`turing. It is therefore important that experts in specific disciplines,
`such as device and circuit design, understand the principle, capabil-
`ities, and limitations of tools and processing technologies. It is also
`important that those working on specific unit processes, such as
`lithography or hot processes, be familiar with other unit processes
`used to manufacture the product.
`
`Several excellent books have been published on the subject
`of process technologies. These texts, however, cover subjects in
`too much detail, or do not cover topics important to modern tech-
`nologies. This book is written with the need for a ”bridge" between
`different disciplines in mind. It is intended to present to engineers
`and scientists those parts of modern processing technologies that
`are of greatest importance to the design and manufacture of semi-
`conductor circuits. The material is presented with sufficient detail
`to understand and analyze interactions between processing and
`other semiconductor disciplines, such as design of devices and cir-
`cuits, their electrical parameters, reliability, and yield.
`
`The book Was developed from notes prepared for courses
`taught at IBM and the University of Vermont.
`It serves as a base
`on which to build an understanding of the manufacture of semi-
`conductor products. It is written in a form to satisfy the needs of
`engineers and scientists in semiconductor research, development
`and manufacturing, and to be conveniently used for a one-semester
`graduate-level course in a semiconductor engineering or material
`science curriculum. The book consists of eight chapters on unit
`processes that are arranged in a conventional sequence that
`reflects typical integrated process technologies. It begins with the
`preparation of semiconductor crystals and continues with thermal
`oxidation, thin-film deposition, lithography, etching, ion implanta-
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