Digital Television
`A Glossary and Bibliography
`
`Digital processing of television signals has
`been investigated experimentally for sev-
`eral years. Much of the theoretical foun-
`dation for the current activity among
`broadcasters
`and manufacturers of
`broadcast equipment was laid by Bell
`Telephone Laboratories in their experi-
`mental work with the videoetelephone
`{some of which is acknowledged in the
`section of the bibliography devoted to
`"Picture Coding") and was further devel-
`oped by the BBC.
`The first practical application of digital
`techniques to broadcast television came in
`early |9'l3 when the digital
`time-base
`corrector was introduced at the National
`Association of Broadcasters Convention.
`In the same year Comsat Corp. demon—
`strated the feasibility ofdigital television
`with their DITEC system for satellite
`communication links.
`I974 saw demonstrations of the feasi-
`bility model of a digital video recorder by
`the BBC and the introduction of Digital
`Intercontinental Conversion Equipment
`(DICE) by the Independent Broadcasting
`Authority. Digital
`frame synchronizers
`became commercially available in 1975.
`and in [976 the first commercial digital
`video recorder was introduced in the form
`of the Electronic Still Store (ESS).
`The acceptability ofdigital processing
`to the broadcaster is emphasized by the
`rapid emergence ofan impressive number
`ofdigitttl products. At the National Asso-
`ciation of Broadcasters Convention in
`I976. the digital equipment demonstrated
`included: I 2 time-base correctors. 6 digital
`synchronizcrs, 1 standards converter, and
`1 digital recorder (ESSJ.
`The introduction of digital signal pro-
`cessing techniques into the new environ-
`ment of broadcasting has produced a large
`body of literature. of which the most sig-
`nificant part is listed below, and a special-
`ized vocabulary listed and defined in the
`following glossary.
`
`GLOSSARY
`
`ADC, (A/ D converter}: analog-to—digital
`Converter
`a prescribed set of well-defined
`algorithm:
`rules or processes for solving a problem in
`a finite number of steps
`hand: a unit of signaling speed equal to the
`number of discrete conditions or signal
`events per second; e.g.. one band equals
`one bit per second in Morse Code and one
`bit per second in a train of binary sig-
`nals
`hit:
`a contraction of “binary" and “digit“
`to define a unit ofinformation
`A contribution submitted on 15 November IBM by
`Gwyneth Davies Heyncs. Ampex Corn.,4[ll Broadway.
`Redwood City. CA 94063.
`
`the speed at which encoded in-
`bit rate:
`formation is transrnittcd. ln digital tele-
`vision, whcrc an 8-bit PCM encoding of
`each sample is commonly required for
`acceptable quality when a sampling fre-
`quency of 10.? M Hz is used, the bit rate
`is approximately 85/86 million hits per
`second (usually expressed as Mbit/s).
`bit stream:
`the flow of encoded informa-
`tion
`byte: 3 sequence of adjacent binary digits
`which is operated upon as a unit and
`usually shorter than a word (q.v.). A byte
`usually is made up of 3 bits.
`buffer: a device used as a temporary store
`from which information is taken out in a
`different manner from that in which it.
`was entered
`codec:
`a contraction of "coder and de-
`coder." used to imply the physical com-
`bination of the coding and decoding cir-
`cuits
`comb filter: a wave filter whose frequency
`spectrum consists of a number of equi-
`spaced elements. It has repetitive pass and
`510p bands (resembling the teeth of a
`comb) and is usually implemented with a
`transversal filter.
`eornpanding:
`a contraction of “com-
`pressing and expanding.“ Compression is
`used at one point in the communication
`path to reduce the amplitude range of the
`signals, followed by an expander to pros
`duce a complementary increase in the
`amplitude range.
`contouring:
`a deleterious effect on the
`restored picture. Diminished shading ef-
`fects and sharply visible contour lines
`around the picture components are caused
`by lack of a continuous range of gray-
`scale values.
`coring:
`a system for reducing the noise
`content of circuits by removing low-
`amplitude noise riding on the baseline of
`the signal
`crispening: a means of increasing picture
`sharpness by generating and applying a
`second time derivative of the original
`signal
`DAC (D/A converter]: digital-to-analog
`converter
`
`a technique for saving
`data compression:
`storage space or transmission bandwidth
`by eliminating gaps, empty fields, re-
`dundancies or unnecessary data
`to
`shorten the length of records or blocks
`data rate:
`the rate at which data are
`transferred from one part of the system to
`another
`the simplest form of
`delta modulation:
`DPCM (q.v.) in which one of only two
`codes is transmitted for each sample. in-
`structing the receiver to either add or
`subtract a fixed unit change to or from an
`accumulating total signal
`
`6
`
`SMPTE Journal
`
`January I 9?? Volume 86
`
`By GWYNETH DAVIES HEYNES
`
`see differential pulse-code mod—
`
`differential pulse code modulation (DPCM):
`a PCM variant in which the coded value
`transmitted for each sample represents
`the quantized difference between the
`present sample value and some combi-
`nation (e.g.. the integrated sum) of all
`previously transmitted values. For signals
`having strong correlation between suc-
`cessive samples. fewer levels may be used
`to quantize differences than would be
`required for quantizing sample values
`with comparable precision.
`DITEC: acronym for Digital Television
`Communications System developed by
`Comsat Corp. for satellite links. (See refs.
`18.33.46.)
`dither signal: a simulated noise waveform
`combined with the signal before quanti-
`zation (q.v.) to compensate for the con-
`touring effects caused by quantization. [t
`effectively reduces the number of bits
`required to produce an acceptable pic-
`ture.
`DPCM:
`ulation
`ECL: emitter-coupledlogic
`coding
`error detection and correction:
`schemes incorporated into the informa-
`tion before it is transmitted (or stored) in
`such a way that errors which may arise in
`transmission can be detected and cor-
`rected before restoration or retrieval. 1n
`PCM systems, error correction effectively
`improves the SNR of the system.
`error rate:
`the ratio of the number of bits
`incorrectly transmitted to the total num-
`ber of bits of information received
`eye pattern: oscilloscope pattern produced
`by random waves introduced to verify the
`ability to test for the presence or absence
`of pulses in a digital system
`Fourier Transform:
`a transformation in
`which the orthogonal generating func-
`tions are sets of sinusoids
`Hadamard Transform:
`a transformation
`algorithm which may be used to encode
`picture signals. It lends itself to imple-
`mentation in such a way as to reduce the
`bit rate to a level lower than that required
`by PCM encoding. See W. K. Pratt. et al.,
`“Hadamard Transform Coding." JEEE
`Proceedings, 57: 58760, Jan. 1969.
`interface:
`interconnection between two
`equipments having different functions
`inter-frame coding:
`coding techniques
`which involve separating the signal into
`segments which have changed signifi-
`cantly from the previous frame and seg-
`ments which have not changed
`interpolation:
`the technique of filling in
`missing information in a sampled sys~
`tern
`in television standards
`Interpolation. line:
`conversion. the technique for adjusting
`the number of lines in a 625-line television
`system to a SIS-line system (and vice
`
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`impairing the picture
`
`versa) without
`quality
`Interpolation, movement: a technique used
`in standards conversion to compensate for
`the degrading effects of different field
`frequencies on pictures which contain
`movement. Different approximate pro~
`portions of successive input fields are used
`in each output field.
`in the PCM
`LSB:
`least significant bit
`representation of a sample value
`MSB: most significant bit in the PCM
`representation ofa sample value
`Nyquist rate {limit}: maximum rate of
`transmitting pulse signals through a
`channel of given bandwidth. If B is the
`effective bandwidth in hertz, then 23 is
`the maximum number of code elements
`per second that can be received with cer-
`tainty. The definition is often inverted, in
`effect, to read “the theoretical minimum
`rate at which an analog signal can be
`sampled for transmitting digitally." (See
`Nyquist Sampling Theorem.)
`a theorem
`Nyquist Sampling Theorem:
`which holds that the minimum sampling
`frequency which can be used without in-
`troducing unwanted components into the
`decoded analog signal is equal to twice the
`highest frequency of the original analog
`signal. (See H. Nyquist, "Certain Topics
`in Telegraph Transmission Theory."
`AlEE Transactions. 47: 61'.’ ~644. April
`1928.)
`the number of bits which
`packing density:
`can be stored per unit of dimension of a
`recording medium
`PALE: phase alternating line encoding.
`A method of encoding the PCM NTSC
`signal by reversing the encoding phase on
`alternate lines to align the codewords
`vertically. (See ref. 4] .)
`parity hit:
`an extra bit appended to an
`array of bits
`to permit
`subsequent
`checking for errors
`PCM:
`sec pulse code modulation
`PDM: pulse duration modulation. Also
`known
`as
`pulse width modulation
`(ti-v.)-
`pel: picture element (see also pixel).
`pixel:
`smallest picture element
`(also
`known as a pet) to which are assigned
`discrete RUB values
`pulse-code modulation: modulation pro-
`cess involving the conversion of a. wave-
`form from analog to digital form by
`means of sampling. quantizing and cod-
`ing. The pcak—to—peak amplitude range of
`the signal
`is divided into a number of
`standard values each having its own value
`code. Each sample of the signal is then
`lranslnilled as the code word corre-
`sponding to the nearest standard ampli-
`lude
`pulse width modulation (also
`PWM:
`known as pulse duration modulation). A.
`form of pulse-time modulation in which
`the duration of a pulse is varied by the
`value of each instantaneous sample nfthe
`modulating wave.
`quantization:
`the division of a continuous
`range of values into a finite number of
`
`distinct values
`RAM:
`random access memory: a storage
`device from which information may be
`obtained at a speed which is independent
`ofthe location ofthc data,and from any
`required location. without searching all
`information sequentially
`read-only memory: a device in which in-
`formation is stored in such a way that it
`may be read but not modified
`real time: when the processing of a signal
`takes place during the time that the re-
`Iatcd physical process is actually taking
`place, the signal may be said to be pro-
`cessed in “real time”
`RUM:
`sec read-only memory
`sampling:
`the procm of obtaining a series
`of discrete instantaneous values of a signal
`at regular or intermittent intervals
`Shannon's Theorem: a criterion for esti-
`mating the theoretical limit lo the rate of
`transmission — and correct reception of
`information with a given bandwidth and
`signal-toanoise ratio. (Soc C. E. Shannon.
`"A Mathematical Theory of Communi-
`cation.“ Bell System Technical Journal,
`27: 379-423. July 1948.)
`shift register:
`a set of serially connected
`memory cells in which the stored contents
`of all cells may be simultaneously shifted
`forward or backward by oneor more cell
`locations. A:
`the time of shifting. now
`contents may enter at one end of the reg-
`ister while previous contents are displaced
`and lost at the other.
`a scheme for
`sub-Nyquist
`sampling:
`sampling at a frequency lower than that
`prescribed by the Nyquist Sampling
`Theorem (q.v.)
`T'I'li:
`transistor-transistor logic. One of
`the families of integrated-circuit
`logic
`gates. Others are: emitter—coupled logic
`(ECL), diode—transistor logic (DTL). and
`resistor-transistor logic (RTL).
`transform coding:
`a method of encoding
`a picture by dividingeaeh picture into
`sub~pictures. performing a linear trans—
`formation on each sub—picture and then
`quantizing and coding the resulting
`coefficients
`the most
`Walsh-Hadamnrd Transform:
`commonly used version ofthe Hadamard
`transformation in which the orthogonal
`functions are sets of Walsh functions.
`(See Hadamard Transform.)
`word:
`a block of information composed of
`a predetermined number of bits
`
`BIBLIOGRAPHY
`Picture Coding
`1. W. R. Bennett. “Spectra of Quantizcd
`Signals," Boll Syflem Technical Journal.
`27: 446—47]. July 1948.
`2. W. M. Goodall. "Television by Pulse-
`Code—Modulation." Bell System Technical
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`.I. B. O'Nflal,
`.lr,_ “Delta Modulation
`Quantizing Noise Analytical and Computer
`Simulation Results for Gaussian and Tele-
`vision lnput Signet-t." Bell System Tech-
`nical Journal.
`4'5:
`117—141.
`January
`[956.
`
`3.
`
`‘
`
`4. J. B. O‘Neal. Jr.. "Predictive Quantizing
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`4'5: 689—721.Mny -Junc1966.
`5. J. O. Limb."Sourcc-Reccivcr Encoding of
`Television Signals.“ lEEE Proceedings,"
`55: 364-379. March |967.
`6. H. C. Andrews and W. K. Pratt. "TelevisiOn
`Bandwidth Reduction by Encoding Spatial
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`December 1968.
`7. J. 0. Limb. “Design ofDithcr Waveforms
`for Quantizod Visual Signals,“ BrllSyi-tem
`Technical Journal. 48: 2555—2582. Sep-
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`ll. H. J. Landau and D. Slepian. "Some
`Computer Experiments in Picture Pro-
`ccssing for Bandwidth Reduction.“ Bell
`System Technical Journal. 50: 152571540.
`May June 1971.
`9. Paul A. Win12. “Transform Picture Cod-
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`1912.
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`Digital Television Principles and Techniques
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`Haynes:
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`Digital TV Glossary and b'lblirigmphy
`
`Tl
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`Time— flsse- Error Correction
`64.
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`Timing Correction of Television Signals.“
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`August 1973.
`S. M. Edwardsun. “The Digital Timing-
`Correction of Video Tape Recorded Colour
`Television Signals." HERE Conference on
`Video and Data Recording — Promedingt.
`pp. 27739. 1973.
`D. .I. M. Kitson et 31.. "Digital Time Base
`Correction.“ International Broadcasting
`Convention 7 Proceedings. no. 1197126.
`1974.
`D. E. Actor and R. H. McLean. "Digital
`Time-Base Correction for Video Signal
`Processing." SMPTE J. 85: 146—50. March
`1976.
`M. L. Sanders. “Digital Time Base Cor-
`rection of Videotape Recorders.“ Monitor
`(lRlz‘E Proceedings). 37: 118—123. April
`1976.
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`TV Synchronizers and Converters." Wire—
`less World. 7?: 4797482. October 1971.
`R. J. Butler. "Operational Implementation
`ofa Broadcast Television Frame SynchrOv
`nizer.
`.l. SMPTE, 84: 125—122. March
`I975.
`K. Kano. "Television Frame Synchronimer,
`.l. SMPTE. 84': 129—434. March 1975.
`K. ltoh et 311.. “Television Frame Synchro—
`nizers and Their Operations.“ NEC Re-
`.teart-h and Development. 70—82. April
`l976.
`J. B. Motley. "A Digital Framestore Syn-
`ehronizer."SMPTE.l.. 8.5: 385—388. June
`1976.
`Standards Conversion
`74.
`A. V. Lord et at. “Digital Line-Store
`Standards Conversions.“
`International
`Broadcasting Convention — Proceedings.
`pp. 24—27. 1970.
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`['2 pp..
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`J. L. E. Baldwin. “A Standards Converter
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`J. O. Drewcry. "Interpolation in Digital
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`(i. M. LeCouteur, “Digital Line-Store
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`verter." Royal Television Society Journal.
`:5: 140 159. September—October. 1913-4.
`Hi. T. Kururna. el LIL, "Digital Fields Store
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`Proceedings, pp. 104 | I}. 1974.
`'62. J. L, E. Baldwin and K.
`ll. Barralt.
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`84. J. L. E. Baldwin. “Digital Television Rc-
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`July. 1973.
`.J. F. Chambers. "The Use of Coding
`Techniques to Reduce the Tape Consump-
`
`85.
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`tion of Digital Television Recording,“ IERE
`Conference on Video and Data Record-
`ting — Proceedings.
`pp.
`95— NM.
`July.
`1973.
`86. D. W, H. liampshire."Digital Expanded
`Capacity Della Modulation for Video Ro-
`cording.“ JERE Conference or! Video and
`Data Recording — Proceedings. pp. 95—
`104. July. 1933.
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`A Review ofCurrcnt Developments." BBC
`Research Report. No. Will/29. 11 pp.
`November. i9?3.
`tilt. A. H. Jones and F. A. Bellis. “An Experi~
`mental Approach to Digital Television
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`flmadrm‘ting
`Convention -- Proceedings. pp. “4- 118.
`1974.
`H9. A, H. Jones. “Digital Televisron Recording:
`A Review of Current Developments.“ BHC
`Engineering. pp. 13—27. May. 1974.
`90. F. Davidoff. “Digital Video Recording for
`Television Broadcasting. J. SMPTE. 84:
`
`552—555. July. i9'i5.
`91. A. H.Jones."Digital Sound and Television
`Recording .,, The Requirements of the
`Signal." l E EE Transactions on Magnetics.
`Vol. Mag fl:
`1210—1233. September.
`1975.
`92. C. D. Mothers. “Digital Video Recording:
`Some Experiments in Error Protemion."
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`February. [916.
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`port. No. leis/7.7 pp.. 19%.
`94. W. G. Connolly and J. Dicrmaun. "The
`Electronic Still Store: :1 Digital System for
`the Storage and Display ofStiil Pictures.“
`SMPTE J.. 35: (ID9--ft|3. August, 1976.
`95. C. Ii. Anderson. .I. Diormann. and W. G.
`Connolly. “The Electronic Still Store: a
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`pp.
`16—33. 1976.
`
`The First Nationwide Live Stereo Simulcast Network
`
`By MARK SCHUBIN
`
`For many years. television audio has been enhanced by the simultaneous transmission of high-
`fidclity. stereo audio information on an FM broadcast station with the lramrnisslon o! video and
`normal television audio information on a television broadcast station. lJnforlunalcly.duc to the
`lack of high-fidelity network facilities. such programs have had to be distributed on tape or, if
`live. confined to a single city. Now a network has been assembled for transmitting lire. high—fidelity.
`stereo simulcasls nationwide via land lines. microwave and satellite. The network utilises analog
`I-‘M suhcarriers for the audio signals. carried just abovc the video information on video circuits.
`The network has been used in conjunction with several programs transmitted by the Public
`Broadcasting Service. and it offers stereo simulcasts to potentially more than half of the United
`states television audience.
`
`IN 1972. the Media Development De—
`partment of Lincoln Center began a re-
`search program to perfect the techniques
`of transmitting performances of opera.
`ballet. theater and music on television.
`Since the performances to be transmitted
`were to be actual live pcrforma nces before
`paying audiences.
`this research covored
`such areas as low-light-level
`imaging.
`contrast compression. unobtrusive camera
`and microphone placement. and prepara—
`tion of the television director for live
`transmission without
`interfering in the
`production.
`it was also decided that. since opera.
`ballet and music depend very heavily on
`high-quality sound for maximum enjoy
`merit. every effort would be made to bring
`such high-quality sound to the home tell:-
`vision viewer. One of the outgrowths of this
`aspect of the research was the first na-
`tionwide live stereo simulcast network. first
`utilized on 30 January 1976 for the trans-
`mission of the first “Live From Lincoln
`Center” program on the Public Broad-
`casting Service.
`
`Background
`though it may be
`Television sound.
`Presented on 18 October 1976 at the Society‘s Tech-
`nical Conference in New York by Mark Schubin.
`Lincoln Center for the Performing Arts. Inc.. 1865
`Broadway. \lcw York. NY 1002.]. This paper was re-
`ceived on 8 September I916.
`
`transmitted on an adequate FM carrier.
`has always been poor in quality compared
`with FM radio sound. To begin with. it is
`picked up by microphones generally re-
`stricted from the camera's field of view and
`thus forced many feel from a performer. it
`is generally recorded on the audio track of
`a videotape recorder on a tape with mag-
`netic particle orientation optimized for
`[rat nsversc video recording and, therefore.
`wrong for longitudinal audio recording. a
`tape which is furthermore struck by a
`moving video head at a frequency near the
`peak of audibility. When television sound
`is distributed by a network, its upper fre-
`quency range is restricted to 5 kHz. When
`received in the home, it is amplified by an
`amplifier that accounts for a negligible
`fraction of the cost of the television set. and
`it is returned to sound by a speaker often no
`better
`than that
`found in inexpensive
`transistor radios.
`Fortunately. it is possible to bypass the
`television sound system completely by the
`use of FM broadcast stations to simulta-
`neously transmit high-fidelity stereo audio
`while a television station transmits video
`and television audio. These simulcasts. as
`they are called. have been used for many
`years for the transmission of both classical
`(WNET‘S Great Performances) and pop
`(A BC‘s in Concert. Don Kirchner-1s Rock
`Concert) music programs.
`
`Unfortunately. unless such programs
`were transmitted within a single city, the
`unavailability of network audio lines of
`wide bandwidth (15 kHz), with low noise
`and capable of maintaining a phase rela-
`tionship between the stereo channels.
`forced these programs to be distributed on
`tape.
`Tape distribution would generally take
`one of several forms. Two videotapes might
`be distributed to be played simultaneously
`by two videotape recorders locked together
`by the SMPTE time code recorded on their
`one tracks while one carried the left chan—
`nel on its audio track and the other the
`right. often causing problems for mono-
`phonic compatibility; a single videotape
`might be distributed with one channel on
`its audio track and a second on its cue track
`(occasionally this would take the form of
`sum information on the audio track and
`difference information on the cue track);
`a single videotape might be distributed to
`modified videotape recorders with split
`audio heads for playing two audio tracks
`back from the space of the single audio
`track used on most machines. with the loss
`of SNR compensated for by noise reduc-
`tion equipment; our video and audio tapes
`might be distributed. to be locked together
`by the use of the SM PTE time code. ver-
`tical drive pulses or other techniques.
`The difficulty of such tape distribu-
`lion -- aside from the obvious costs. com-
`promises and operational problems en-
`countered — is that none of the methods
`could provide for the transmission of a live
`program.
`Even though netwurk audio lines were
`inadequate for high—fidelity transmission.
`however. network video lines were capable
`of transmitting far more than the video
`information presented to them. For ex-
`ample. a large part ofa video signal is de-
`
`Vofume 86
`
`January ”‘77 .S‘MPTE Journal
`
`9
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