Digital Television
`A Glossary and Bibliography
`
`Digital processing of television signals has
`been investigated experimentally for sev-
`eral years. Much of the theoretical foun-
`dation for
`the current activity among
`broadcasters
`and manufacturers of
`broadcast equipment was laid by Bell
`Telephone Laboratories in their experi-
`mental work with the video-telephone
`(some of which is acknowledged in the
`section of the bibliography devoted to
`“Picture Coding") and was further devel-
`oped by the BBC.
`The first practical application of digital
`techniques to broadcast television came in
`early I973 when the digital
`time-base
`corrcctor was introduced at the National
`Association of Broadcasters Convention.
`In the same year Comsat Corp. demon-
`strated the feasibility of digital television
`with their DITEC system for satellite
`communication links.
`I974 saw demonstrations of the feasi-
`bility model of a digital video recorder by
`the BBC and the introduction of Digital
`Intercontinental Conversion Equipment
`(DICE) by the Independent Broadcasting
`Authority. Digital
`frame synchronizers
`became commercially available in 1975,
`and in 1976 the first commercial digital
`video recorder was introduced in the form
`of the Electronic Still Store (ESS).
`The acceptability of digital processing
`to the broadcaster is emphasized by the
`rapid emergence of an impressive number
`of digital products. At the National Asso-
`ciation of Broadcasters Convention in
`1976, the digital equipment demonstrated
`included: 12 time-base correctors, 6 digital
`synchronizers, 1 standards converter, and
`1 digital recorder (ESS).
`The introduction of digital signal pro-
`cessing techniques into the new environ-
`ment of broadcasting has produced a large
`body of literature, of which the most sig-
`nificant part is listed below, and a special-
`ized vocabulary listed and defined in the
`following glossary.
`
`GLOSSARY
`
`ADC, (A / D converter): analog-to-digital
`converter
`
`a prescribed set of well-defined
`algorithm:
`rules or processes for solving a problem in
`a finite number of steps
`baud: a unit of signaling speed equal to the
`number of discrete conditions or signal
`events per second; e.g., one band equals
`one bit per second in Morse Code and one
`bit per second in a train of binary sig-
`nals
`bit:
`a contraction of “binary” and “digit"
`to define a unit of information
`A contribution submitted on IS November I976 by
`Gwyneth Davies Heynes, Ampex Corp, 401 Broadway,
`Redwood City. CA 94063.
`
`the speed at which encoded in-
`bit rate:
`formation is transmitted. in digital tele-
`vision, where an 8-bit PCM encoding of
`each sample is commonly required for
`acceptable quality when a sampling fre-
`quency of 10.7 MHz is used, the bit rate
`is approximately 85/86 million bits per
`second (usually expressed as Mbit/s).
`bit stream:
`the flow of encoded informa-
`tion
`a sequence of adjacent binary digits
`byte:
`which is operated upon as a unit and
`usually shorter than a word (q.v.). A byte
`usually is made up of 8 bits.
`buffer: a device used as a temporary store
`from which information is taken out in a
`different manner from that in which it
`was entered
`codec:
`a contraction of “coder and de-
`coder," used to imply the physical com-
`bination of the coding and decoding cir-
`cuits
`comb filter: a wave filter whose frequency
`spectrum consists of a number of equi-
`spaced elements. It has repetitive pass and
`stop bands (resembling the teeth of a
`comb) and is usually implemented with a
`transversal filter.
`
`a contraction of “com-
`companding:
`pressing and expanding.” Compression is
`used at one point in the communication
`path to reduce the amplitude range of the
`signals, followed by an expander to pro-
`duce a complementary increase in the
`amplitude range.
`contouring:
`a deleterious effect on the
`restored picture. Diminished shading ef-
`fects and sharply visible contour lines
`around the picture components are caused
`by lack of a continuous range of gray-
`scale values.
`coring:
`a system for reducing the noise
`content of circuits by removing low-
`amplitude noise riding on the baseline of
`the signal
`crispening: a means of increasing picture
`sharpness by generating and applying a
`second time derivative of the original
`signal
`DAC (D/A converter): digital-to-analog
`converter
`
`data compression: a technique for saving
`storage space or transmission bandwidth
`by eliminating gaps, empty fields, re-
`dundancies or unnecessary data to
`shorten the length of records or blocks
`data rate:
`the rate at which data are
`transferred from one part of the system to
`another
`the simplest form of
`delta modulation:
`DPCM (q.v.) in which one of only two
`codes is transmitted for each sample, in-
`structing the receiver to either add or
`subtract a fixed unit change to or from an
`accumulating total signal
`
`6
`
`SMPTE Journal
`
`January I 977 Volume 86
`
`By GWYNETH DAVIES HEYNES
`
`differential pulse code modulation (DPCM):
`a PCM variant in which the coded value
`transmitted for each sample represents
`the quantized difference between the
`present sample value and some combi-
`nation (e.g., the integrated sum) of all
`previously transmitted values. For signals
`having strong correlation between suc-
`cessive samples, fewer levels may be used
`to quantize differences than would be
`required for quantizing sample values
`with comparable precision.
`DITEC:
`acronym for Digital Television
`Communications System developed by
`Comsat Corp. for satellite links. (Sec refs.
`I8, 33, 46.)
`dither signal: a simulated noise waveform
`combined with the signal before quanti-
`zation (q.v.) to compensate for the con-
`touring effects caused by quantization. It
`effectively reduces the number of bits
`required to produce an acceptable pic-
`ture.
`
`see differential pulse-code mod-
`
`DPCM:
`ulation
`ECL: emitter-coupled logic
`coding
`error detection and correction:
`schemes incorporated into the informa-
`tion before it is transmitted (or stored) in
`such a way that errors which may arise in
`transmission can be detected and cor-
`rected before restoration or retrieval. In
`PCM systems, error correction effectively
`improves the SNR of the system.
`error rate:
`the ratio of the number of bits
`incorrectly transmitted to the total num-
`ber of bits of information received
`eye pattern: oscilloscope pattern produced
`by random waves introduced to verify the
`ability to test for the presence or absence
`of pulses in a digital system
`Fourier Transform:
`a transformation in
`which the orthogonal generating func-
`tions are sets of sinusoids
`Hadamard Transform:
`a transformation
`algorithm which may be used to encode
`picture signals. it lends itself to imple-
`mentation in such a way as to reduce the
`bit rate to a level lower than that required
`by PCM encoding. See W. K. Pratt, et al.,
`“Hadamard Transform Coding," IEEE
`Proceedings, 57: 58-60, Jan. 1969.
`interface:
`interconnection between two
`equipments having different functions
`inter-frame coding:
`coding techniques
`which involve separating the signal into
`segments which have changed signifi-
`cantly from the previous frame and seg-
`ments which have not changed
`interpolation:
`the technique of filling in
`missing information in a sampled sys-
`tem
`
`in television standards
`interpolation, line:
`conversion, the technique for adjusting
`the number of lines in a 625-line television
`system to a 525-line system (and vice
`
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`
`impairing the picture
`
`versa) without
`quality
`interpolation, movement: a technique used
`in standards conversion to compensate for
`the degrading effects of different field
`frequencies on pictures which contain
`movement. Different approximate pro-
`portions of successive input fields are used
`in each output field.
`LSB:
`least significant bit in the PCM
`representation ofa sample value
`MSB: most significant bit in the PCM
`representation of a sample value
`Nyquist rate (limit): maximum rate of
`transmitting pulse signals through a
`channel of given bandwidth. If B is the
`effective bandwidth in hertz, then 2B is
`the maximum number of code elements
`per second that can be received with cer-
`tainty. The definition is often inverted, in
`effect, to read “the theoretical minimum
`rate at which an analog signal can be
`sampled for transmitting digitally.” (See
`Nyquist Sampling Theorem.)
`a theorem
`Nyquist Sampling Theorem:
`which holds that the minimum sampling
`frequency which can be used without in-
`troducing unwanted components into the
`decoded analog signal is equal to twice the
`highest frequency of the original analog
`signal. (See H. Nyquist, “Certain Topics
`in Telegraph Transmission Theory,”
`AIEE Transactions, 47.‘ 617-644, April
`1928.)
`the number of bits which
`packing density:
`can be stored per unit of dimension of a
`recording medium
`PALE: phase alternating line encoding.
`A method of encoding the PCM NTSC
`signal by reversing the encoding phase on
`alternate lines to align the codewords
`vertically. (See ref. 4|.)
`parity hit:
`an extra bit appended to an
`array of bits
`to permit subsequent
`checking for errors
`PCM:
`see pulse code modulation
`PDM: pulse duration modulation. Also
`known
`as
`pulse width modulation
`(q.v.).
`pel: picture element (see also pixel).
`pixel:
`smallest picture element
`(also
`known as a pel) to which are assigned
`discrete RGB values
`pulse-code modulation: modulation pro-
`cess involving the conversion of a wave-
`form from analog to digital form by
`means of sampling, quantizing and cod-
`ing. The peak-to-pcak amplitude range of
`the signal is divided into a number of
`standard values each having its own value
`code. Each sample of the signal is then
`transmitted as the code word corre-
`sponding to the nearest standard ampli-
`tude
`pulse width modulation (also
`PWM:
`known as pulse duration modulation). A ‘
`form of pulse-time modulation in which
`the duration of a pulse is varied by the
`value of each instantaneous sample of the
`modulating wave.
`quantization:
`the division of a continuous
`range of values into a finite number of
`
`distinct values
`RAM:
`random access memory: a storage
`device from which information may be
`obtained at a speed which is independent
`of the location ofthe data, and from any
`required location. without searching all
`information sequentially
`read-only memory:
`a device in which in-
`formation is stored in such a way that it
`may be read but not modified
`real time: when the processing of a signal
`takes place during the time that the re-
`lated physical process is actually taking
`place, the signal may be said to be pro-
`cessed in “real time”
`ROM:
`see read-only memory
`sampling:
`the process of obtaining a series
`of discrete instantaneous values of a signal
`at regular or intermittent intervals
`Shannon’s Theorem:
`a criterion for esti-
`mating the theoretical Iimit to the rate of
`transmission — and correct reception of
`information with a given bandwidth and
`signal-to-noise ratio. (See C. E. Shannon,
`“A Mathematical Theory of Communi-
`cation." Bell System Technical Journal,
`27: 379-423, July 1948.)
`shift register:
`a set of serially connected
`memory cells in which the stored contents
`ofall cells may be simultaneously shifted
`forward or backward by one or more cell
`locations. At‘ the time of shifting, new
`contents may enter at one end of the reg-
`ister whilc previous contents are displaced
`and lost at the other.
`a scheme for
`sub-Nyquist
`sampling:
`sampling at a frequency lower than that
`prescribed by the Nyquist Sampling
`Theorem (q.v.)
`TTL:
`transistor-transistor logic. One of
`the families of integrated-circuit logic
`gates. Others are: emitter-coupled logic
`(ECL), diode-transistor logic (DTL), and
`resistor-transistor logic (RTL).
`transform coding:
`a method of encoding
`a picture by dividing_each picture into
`sub-pictures, performing a linear trans-
`formation on each sub—picture and then
`quantizing and coding the resulting
`coefficients
`the most
`Walsh-Hadamard Transform:
`commonly used version of the Hadamard
`transformation in which the orthogonal
`functions are sets of Walsh functions.
`(See Hadamard Transform.)
`word: a block of information composed of
`a predetermined number of bits
`
`BIBLIOGRAPHY
`Picture Coding
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`Signals." Bell System Technical Journal,
`27: 446—47l, July I948.
`2. W. M. Goodall, “Television by Pulse-
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`3. J. B. O’NeaI,
`.lr., “Delta Modulation
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`Simulation Results for Gaussian and Tele-
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`45:
`lI7—14l,
`January
`1966.
`
`4. J. B. O’NeaI. Jr., “Predictive Quantizing
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`Television Signals.“ IEEE Proceedings,"
`55: 364-379, March I967.
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`
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`
`22.
`
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`

`
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`.
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`
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`
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`
`8
`
`SMPTE Journal
`
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`
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`_
`'
`T"“°'B“5“"E""°' C°""°°"°"
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`I976.
`
`_
`name Sy“°l"'°"'"“°“
`69. S. M. Edwardson and A. H. Jones, "Digital
`TV Synchronizers and Converters,“ Wire-
`less World, 77: 479-482, October I971.
`70. R. J . Butler, “Operational Implementation
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`7], K, Kano, "Television Frame Synchronizer,
`J. SMPTE, 84: 129-134, March 1975.
`72. K. ltoh et al., “Television Frame Synchro-
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`78. J. O. Drewcry, “Interpolation in Digital
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`1972/23, I4 pp., I973.
`80. J. L. E. Baldwin et al., “DICE: The First
`Intercontinental Digital Standards Con-
`
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`
`The First Nationwide Live Stereo Simulcast Network
`
`By MARK SCHUBIN
`
`For many years, television audio has been enhanced by the simultaneous transmission of high-
`Iidclity. stereo audio information on an FM broadcast station with the transmission of video and
`normal television audio information on a television broadcast station. Unfortunately, due to the
`lack of high-fidelity network facilities. such programs have had to be distributed on tape or, if
`livc. confined to a single city. Now a network has been assembled for transmitting live, high-fidelity,
`stereo simulcasts nationwide via land lines, microwave and satellite. The network utilizes analog
`FM subcarriers for the audio signals. carried just above the video information on video circuits.
`The network has been used in conjunction with several programs transmitted by the Public
`Broadcasting Service, and it offers stereo simulcasts to potentially more than half of the United
`States television audience.
`
`IN 1972, the Media Development De-
`partment of Lincoln Center began a re-
`search program to perfect the techniques
`of transmitting performances of opera,
`ballet, theater and music on television.
`Since the performances to be transmitted
`were to be actual live performances before
`paying audiences, this research covered
`such areas as low-light-level
`imaging,
`contrast compression, unobtrusive camera
`and microphone placement, and prepara-
`tion of the television director for
`live
`transmission without
`interfering in the
`production.
`It was also decided that, since opera,
`ballet and music depend very heavily on
`high-quality sound for maximum enjoy-
`ment, every effort would be made to bring
`such high-quality sound to the home tele-
`vision viewer. One of the outgrowths of this
`aspect of the research was the first na-
`tionwide livc stereo simulcast network, first
`utilized on 30 January I976 for the trans-
`mission of the first “Live From Lincoln
`Center” program on the Public Broad-
`casting Service.
`
`Background
`though it may be
`Television. sound,
`Presented on IS October I976 at the Society's Tech-
`nical Confcrencc in New York by Mark Schubin,
`Lincoln Center for the Performing Arts, Inc. I865
`Broadway. New York, NY I002}. This paper was re-
`ceived on 8 September I976.
`
`transmitted on an adequate FM carrier,
`has always been poor in quality compared
`with FM radio sound. To begin with, it is
`picked up by microphones generally re-
`stricted from the cameras field of view and
`thus forced many feet from a performer. It
`is generally recorded on the audio track of
`a videotape recorder on a tape with mag-
`netic particle orientation optimized for
`transverse video recording and, therefore,
`wrong for longitudinal audio recording, a
`tape which is furthermore struck by a
`moving video head at a frequency near the
`peak of audibility. When television sound
`is distributed by a network, its upper fre-
`quency range is restricted to 5 kHz. When
`received in the home, it is amplified by an
`amplifier that accounts for a negligible
`fraction of the cost of the television set, and
`it is returned to sound by a speaker often no
`better than that
`found in inexpensive
`transistor radios.
`Fortunately, it is possible to bypass the
`television sound system completely by the
`use of FM broadcast stations to simulta-
`neously transmit high-fidelity stereo audio
`while a television station transmits video
`and television audio. These simulcasts, as
`they are called, have been used for many
`years for the transmission of both classical
`(WN ET‘s Great Performances) and pop
`(A BC’s In Concert, Don Kirshner's Rock
`Concert) music programs.
`
`Unfortunately, unless such programs
`were transmitted within a single city, the
`unavailability of network audio lines of
`wide bandwidth (1 5 kHz), with low noise
`and capable of maintaining a phase rela-
`tionship betwccn the stereo channels,
`forced these programs to be distributed on
`tape.
`Tape distribution would generally take
`one of several forms. Two videotapes might
`be distributed to be played simultaneously
`by two videotape recorders locked together
`by the SMPTE time code recorded on their
`cue tracks while one carried the left chan-
`ncl on its audio track and the other the
`right, often causing problems for mono-
`phonic compatibility; a single videotape
`might be distributed with one channel on
`its audio track and a second on its cuc track
`(occasionally this would take the form of
`sum information on the audio track and
`difference information on the cue track);
`a single videotape might be distributed to
`modified videotape recorders with split
`audio heads for playing two audio tracks
`back from the space of the single audio
`track used on most machines, with the loss
`of SNR compensated for by noise reduc-
`tion equipment; or video and audio tapes
`might be distributed. to be locked together
`by the use of the SM PTE time code, ver-
`tical drivc pulses or other techniques.
`The difficulty of such tape distribu-
`tion -— aside from the obvious costs, com-
`promises and operational problems en-
`countered — is that none of the methods
`could provide for the transmission of a live
`program.
`Even though network audio lines were
`inadequate for high-fidelity transmission,
`however, network video lines were capable
`of transmitting far more than the video
`information presented to them. For ex-
`ample, a large part of a video signal is de-
`PMC Exhibit 2019
`January 1977 SMlBM.gtE%d)ibit 3019
`Apple v. PMC
`Apple v. PMC
`IPR201 6-00753
`IPR2016-00753
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`Volume 86