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`BOREALIS EXHIBIT 1052
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`Dan Madrzykowski
`Fire Research Division
`daniel.madrzykowski@nist.gov
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`Fire Dynamics
`
`Fire Dynamics
`Fire Dynamics is the study of how chemistry, fire science, material science and the mechanical engineering
`disciplines of fluid mechanics and heat transfer interact to influence fire behavior. In other words, Fire
`Dynamics is the study of how fires start, spread and develop. But what exactly is a fire?
`
`Defining Fire
`Fire can be described in many ways here are a few:
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`NFPA 921: "A rapid oxidation process, which is a chemical reaction resulting in the evolution of
`light and heat in varying intensities."
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`Webster's Dictionary: "A fire is an exothermic chemical reaction that emits heat and light"
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`Fire can also be explained in terms of the Fire Tetrahedron a geometric representation of what is required
`for fire to exist, namely, fuel, an oxidizing agent, heat, and an uninhibited chemical reaction.
`
`Measuring Fire
`Heat Energy is a form of energy characterized by vibration of molecules and capable of initiating and
`supporting chemical changes and changes of state (NFPA 921). In other words, it is the energy needed to
`change the temperature of an object add heat, temperature increases; remove heat, temperature
`decreases. Heat energy is measured in units of Joules (J), however it can also be measured in Calories (1
`Calorie = 4.184 J) and BTU's (1 BTU = 1055 J).
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`Temperature is a measure of the degree of molecular activity of a material compared to a reference point.
`Temperature is measured in degrees Farenheit (melting point of ice = 32 º F, boiling point of water = 212 º
`F) or degrees Celsius (melting point of ice = 0 º C, boiling point of water = 100 º C).
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`º C
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`º F
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`Response
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`37
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`44
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`48
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`55
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`62
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`72
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`100
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`140
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`230
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`250
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`98.6
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` Normal human oral/body temperature
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`111
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` Human skin begins to feel pain
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`118
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` Human skin receives a first degree burn injury
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`131
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` Human skin receives a second degree burn injury
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`140
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` A phase where burned human tissue becomes numb
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`162
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` Human skin is instantly destroyed
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`212
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` Water boils and produces steam
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`284
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` Glass transition temperature of polycarbonate
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`446
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` Melting temperature of polycarbonate
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`482
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` Charring of natural cotton begins
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`>300
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`>572
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` Charring of modern protective clothing fabrics begins
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`>600
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`>1112 Temperatures inside a postflashover room fire
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`Heat Release Rate (HRR) is the rate at which fire releases energy this is also known as power. HRR is
`measured in units of Watts (W), which is an International System unit equal
`to one Joule per second. Depending on the size of the fire, HRR is also measured in Kilowatts
`(equal to 1,000 Watts) or Megawatts (equal 1,000,000 Watts).
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`Heat Flux is the rate of heat energy transferred per surface unit area kW/m2.
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`Heat Flux (kW/m2)
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`Example
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`1
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`2.5
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`35
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`20
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`84
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`Sunny day
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`Typical firefighter exposure
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`Pain to skin within seconds
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`Threshold flux to floor at flashover
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`Thermal Protective Performance Test (NFPA 1971)
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`60 200
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`Flames over surface
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`Temperature vs. Heat Release Rate
`One candle vs. ten candles same flame temperature but 10 times the heat release rate!
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`HRR: ~ 80 W
`Temperature:
`500 C 1400 C
`(930 F 2500 F)
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`HRR: ~ 800 W
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`Heat Transfer
`Heat transfer is a major factor in the ignition, growth, spread, decay and extinction of a fire. It is important to
`note that heat is always transferred from the hotter object to the cooler object heat energy transferred to
`and object increases the object's temperature, and heat energy transferred from and object decreases
`the object's temperature.
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`CONDUCTION
`
`Conduction is heat transfer within solids or between contacting solids.
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`The governing equation for heat transfer by conduction is:
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`Where T is temperature (in Kelvin), A is the exposure area (meters squared), L is the depth of the solid
`(meters), and k is a constant that unique for different materials know as the thermal conductivity and has
`units of (Watts/meters*Kelvin).
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`Thermal Conductivity of Common Materials
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`Copper = 387
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`Gypsum = 0.48
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`Steel = 45.8
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`Oak = 0.17
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`Glass = 0.76
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`Pine = 0.14
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`Brick = 0.69
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`PPE = 0.034 0.136
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`Water = 0.58
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`Air = 0.026
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`CONVECTION
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`Convection is heat transfer by the movement of liquids or gasses.
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`The governing equation for heat transfer by convection is:
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`
`
`
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`Where T is temperature (in Kelvin), A is the area of exposure (in meters squared), and h is a constant that is
`unique for different materials known as the convective heat transfer coefficient, with units of W/m2*K. These
`values are found empirically, or, by experiment. For free convection, values usually range between 5 and 25.
`But for forced convection, values can range anywhere from 10 to 500.
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`RADIATION
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`Radiation is heat transfer by electromagnetic waves.
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`
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`
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`The governing equation for heat transfer by radiation is:
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`Where T is temperature (in Kelvin), A is the area of exposure (in meters squared), α is the thermal diffusivity
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`(a measure of how quickly a material will adjust it's temperature to the surroundings, in meters squared per
`second) and ε is the emissivity (a measure of the ability of a materials surface to emit energy by radiation).
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`Fire Phenomena
`Fire Development is a function of many factors including: fuel properties, fuel quantity, ventilation (natural
`or mechanical), compartment geometry (volume and ceiling height), location of fire, and ambient conditions
`(temperature, wind, etc).
`
`Traditional Fire Development
`The Traditional Fire Development curve shows the time history of a fuel limited fire. In other words, the fire
`growth is not limited by a lack of oxygen. As more fuel becomes involved in the fire, the energy level continues to
`increase until all of the fuel available is burning (fully developed). Then as the fuel is burned away, the energy level
`begins to decay. The key is that oxygen is available to mix with the heated gases (fuel) to enable the completion of
`the fire triangle and the generation of energy.
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`
`
`Watch
`Windows: Traditional Fire Development in a Compartment Fire
`Mac: Traditional Fire Development in a Compartment Fire
`
`Fire Behavior in a Structure
`The Fire Behavior in a Structure curve demonstrates the time history of a ventilation limited fire. In this case the
`fire starts in a structure which has the doors and windows closed. Early in the fire growth stage there is adequate
`oxygen to mix with the heated gases, which results in flaming combustion. As the oxygen level within the
`structure is depleted, the fire decays, the heat release from the fire decreases and as a result the temperature
`decreases. When a vent is opened, such as when the fire department enters a door, oxygen is introduced. The
`oxygen mixes with the heated gases in the structure and the energy level begins to increase. This change in
`ventilation can result in a rapid increase in fire growth potentially leading to a flashover (fully developed
`compartment fire) condition.
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`
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`Watch
`Windows: Fire Behavior in a Structure (Ventilation limited)
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`Mac: Fire Behavior in a Structure (Ventilation limited)
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`Flashover is the transition phase in the development of a contained fire in which surfaces exposed to the
`thermal radiation, from fire gases in excess of 600° C, reach ignition temperature more or less
`simultaneously and fire spreads rapidly through the space. This is the most dangerous stage of fire
`development.
`
`
`
`Videos:
`
`Compartment Fire Flashover
`
`Flashover Compilation
`
`Reports:
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`Backdraft Phenomena
`
`Fatal Training Fires
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