AUTOMOTIVE
`HAN DBOOK
`
`FORD 1935
`
`Page 1 of 23
`
`FORD 1935
`
`

`
`
`
`Reproduction, duplication and translation
`of
`this publication,
`including excerpts
`therefrom,
`is only to ensue with our
`previous written consent and with parti-
`culars of source.
`Illustrations, descrip-
`tions, schematic diagrams and other data
`serve only for explanatory purposes and
`ior presentation of the text. They cannot
`be used as the basis for design, installa-
`tion, and scope of delivery. We undertake
`no liability for conformity of the contents
`with national or local regulations.
`We reserve the right to make changes.
`
`The brand names given in the contents
`serve only as examples and do not repre-
`sent the classification or preference for a
`particular manufacturer. Trade marks are
`not identified as such.
`
`The following companies kindly placed
`picture matter, diagrams and other infor-
`mative material at our disposal:
`'
`
`Audi AG, ingolstadt;
`Bayerische Motoren Werke AG, Munich;
`Behr GmbH & Co, Stuttgart;
`Brose Fahrzeugteile GmbH & Co. KG,
`Coburg;
`Continental AG, Hannover;
`Eberspacher KG, Elilingen;
`Filterwerk Mann und Hummei,
`Ludwigsburg;
`Ford-Werke AG, Cologne;
`Aktiengesellschatt Kiihnle, Kopp und
`Kausch, Frankental;
`Mannesmann Kienzle GmbH,
`Vlllingen-Schwenningen;
`Mercedes—Benz AG, Stuttgart;
`Pierburg GmbH, Neuss;
`RWE Energie AG, Essen;
`Volkswagen AG, Wolisburg;
`Zahnradfabrik Friedrichshafen AG,
`Friedrichshafen.
`Source of information for motor-vehicle
`
`specifications: Automobil Revue Katalog
`1 995.
`
`Imprint
`
`Published by:
`© Robert Bosch GmbH, 1996
`Postfach 30 02 20
`
`D-70442 Stuttgart
`Automotive Equipment Business Sector,
`Department for Technical Information
`(KHNDT).
`_
`Management: Dipl.-lng.(FH) Ulrich Adler.
`
`Editor in chief:
`
`Dipl.-Ing.(FH) Horst Bauer.
`
`Editors:
`
`lng.(grad.) Arne _Cypra,
`Dipl.-lng. (FH) Anton Beer,
`Dipl.-lng. Hans Bauer.
`
`Production management:
`Joachim Kaiser.
`
`Layout:
`Dipl.-lng.(FH) Ulrich Adler,
`Joachim Kaiser.
`
`Translation:
`Editor in chief:
`
`Peter Girling
`Translated by:
`lngenieurbflro ffir Technische und
`Wissenschaltliche Ubersetzungen
`Dr. W.-D. Haehl GmbH, Stuttgart
`Member of the ALPNET Services Group
`William D. Lyon
`
`Technical graphics:
`Bauer & Partner GmbH, Stuttgart.
`Design, front cover, front matter:
`Zweckwerbung, Kirchheim u.T., Germany
`Technische Publikation, Waiblingen
`
`Distribution, 4th Edition:
`SAE Society of Automotive Engineers
`400 Commonwealth Drive
`Warrendale, PA 15096-0001 U.S.A.
`ISBN 1-56091-918-3
`
`Printed in Germany.
`Imprimé en Allemagne.
`
`4th Edition, October 1996.
`
`Editorial closing: 31.08.1996
`
`lige 2 of 23
`
`FORD 1935
`
`FORD 1935
`
`

`
`
`
` 4 Contents
`
`contents
`
`Motor-vehicle dynamics
`Fload-going vehicle requirements
`
`326
`
`'
`
`'
`
`Physics, basics
`Quantities and units
`Conversion tables
`Vibration and oscillation
`Mechanics
`Strength of materials
`Acoustics
`Heat
`Electrical engineering
`E'9°"'°"i°5
`S°“5°"e"
`A°t“at°’5
`E'°°m.° ma°h.i"es
`T°°h"'°a' °pt'°5
`Mathematics, methods
`Mathematics
`Quality
`Engineering statistics,
`measuring techniques
`Reliability
`Data processing in motor vehicles
`Control engineering
`Materms
`Ch°"‘i°a' e'°"‘e"‘s
`Te"mi"°'°9V and parameters
`Matefial gmups.
`Material properties
`Lubricants
`Fuels
`Chemicals
`Corrosion and corrosion protection
`Heat treatment
`Ha’d"eS5
`llllaschine elements
`Tolerances
`Sliding and rolling bearings
`Spring calculations
`Gears and tooth systemsg
`$:l'_te:';;‘$SfastenerS
`
`Joining and bonding techniques
`Welding
`Soldering
`Adhesives
`Riveting
`Pressurized clinching
`
`Punch riveting
`.
`sh°°t'm°ta' Pr°°ess'"9
`Tribology, wear
`
`10
`17
`39
`44
`52
`60
`66
`70
`86
`102
`122
`130
`135
`
`156
`1 64
`166
`170
`
`174
`178
`180
`184
`224
`232
`244
`250
`260
`266
`
`271
`
`288
`
`31 1
`313
`
`316
`
`317
`318
`321
`
`_
`31%| Veiilluifefrlllients
`am CS 0 near motion
`Dynamics oi lateral motion
`Evaluating operating behavior
`(as pier ISO)
`_
`.
`Special operating dynamics
`for commercial vehicles.
`Agricultural-tractor requirements
`Environmental Stresses
`Internal-combustion (lc) engines
`Operating concepts and classification 358
`Thermodynamic cycles
`359
`Reciprocating-piston engines
`with internal combustion
`The spark-ignition (Otto) engine
`Eh: C_i[|‘eS9| engine
`Y N processes
`_
`Gas exchange
`Supercharging/turbocharging
`Power transfer
`Cooling_
`léubricatipn I
`arrirdpgact: 1‘:gaeliulafions
`Reciprocating-piston engine with
`external combustion (Stirling engine)
`The Wankel rotary engine
`Gas turbines
`
`_
`Engine cooling
`‘
`Air and water cooling
`ghargel-air coolingfintercooling
`i coo ing
`Intake air, exhaust systems
`Alr filters
`Turbochargers and superchargers
`Exhaust systems
`-
`_
`Fgr:gt'i';en?sal?:%;ri?‘::t for spark
`Control parameters and operation
`
`Ignition
`Basics
`Components
`lsgnitifin ‘coils
`par p ugs
`Ignition systems
`
`327
`330
`342
`
`346
`
`351
`354
`356
`
`331
`364
`368
`373
`374
`373
`332
`393
`393
`400
`412
`
`414
`416
`
`413
`420
`421
`
`422
`424
`430
`
`434
`
`436
`
`439
`440
`
`'
`
`445
`Conventionaldcoil ignition|)(C|)
`ransistorize ignition (T
`448
`Capacitor-discharge ignition (CD1) 450
`Electronic ignition (ESA and DLI) 451
`Knock control
`-
`454
`
`P399 3 °‘ 23
`
`FORD 1935
`
`FORD 1935
`
`

`
`Contents 5
`
`Fuel supply
`Electric fuel pumps
`
`Fuel management
`
`456
`
`458
`
`459
`Carburetors
`Single-point fuel-injection systems ('l'Bl)462
`Mono-Jetronic
`462
`Multipoint fuel-injection systems
`464
`K-Jetronic
`464
`KE-Jetronic
`466
`L-Jetronic
`468
`LH-Jetronic
`471
`
`Other engine~control functions
`473
`Idle-speed control
`474
`Electronic throttle control (ETC)
`474
`Electronic boost-pressure control
`476
`Variable—geometry intake manifold
`Evaporative-emissions control system 477
`Exhaust~gas recirculation (EG R)
`477
`
`Integrated engine-management
`system, Motronic
`Detection and processing of
`measured variables
`
`Motronic system
`System configuration
`Racing applications
`
`Engine test technology
`
`Exhaust emissions from spark-
`ignition (SI) engines
`Combustion products
`Emissions control
`
`Lambda closed-loop control
`Testing exhaust and evaporative
`emissions
`‘-
`
`Test cycles and emission limits
`Exhaust-gas analyzers
`
`479
`
`480
`483
`483
`
`484
`
`486
`487
`
`490
`
`494
`
`496
`500
`
`Internal-combustion (IC) engines for
`alternative fuels -
`
`LPG systems
`Alcohol operation
`Hydrogen operation
`
`501
`504
`505
`
`Engine management (diesel engines)
`Fuel metering
`506
`Fuel-injection pumps, in-line
`508
`Fuel-injection pumps, control sleeve 514
`Fuel-injection pumps, distributor type 515
`Fuel-injection pumps,
`distributor-type, so|enoid—controiled 518
`‘lime-controlled single-pump systems 519
`Common-rail system
`521
`lnjection—pump test benches
`523
`Nozzles and nozzle holders
`524
`
`Exhaust emissions (diesel engines)
`Emissions control
`530
`531
`Emissions testing
`Test cycles and exhaust-emission
`533
`limits in Europe
`Exhaust-emissions testing equipment 536
`
`Auxiliary starting devices (diesel engines)
`Sheathed-element glow plugs
`538
`Glow control unit
`539
`
`Starting systems
`Starters
`Starter protection devices
`
`Alternative drive systems
`_ Electric drives
`Hybrid drives
`Drivetrain
`Basics
`Clutches and ‘couplings
`Transmissions and gearboxes
`Final-drive units
`Differentials
`All-wheel drive (AWD)
`Traction control (ASR)
`
`Chassis systems
`Suspension
`Suspension linkage
`Wheels
`Tires
`Steering
`
`541
`544
`
`545
`551
`
`554
`556
`559
`569
`571
`573
`574
`
`580
`588
`592
`596
`606
`
`Braking systems
`Definitions, principles
`Legal regulations
`Design and components of a
`braking system
`Braking-system design
`Braking-force apportioning
`Braking systems for passenger cars
`and light utility vehicles
`Control devices
`Wheel brakes
`Braking-force distribution
`Antilock braking systems (ABS)
`tor passenger cars
`Braking systems
`for commercial vehicles
`System and configuration
`Braking-force metering
`Wheel brakes
`Parking-brake systems
`Fietarder braking systems
`Components for compressed-
`air brakes
`
`612
`61 6
`
`620
`621
`622
`
`624
`624
`625
`626
`
`627
`
`640
`640
`641
`644
`648
`648
`
`653
`
`age 4 of 23
`
`FORD 1935
`
`FORD 1935
`
`

`
`
`
`6 Contents
`
`Antilock braking systems (ABS)
`for commercial vehicles
`
`E::%'1Z”;‘;I:'t'grg"('F‘Etl'-"B")ed
`Bmke ‘est Stands
`Vehicle Dynamics Control (VDC)
`1-ask
`venicie handling
`Control system
`System realization
`
`659
`
`663
`666
`
`668
`669
`670
`676
`
`'
`Air conditioners _
`Auxiliary heater installations
`
`§;);'It'IeI1r1r:lsl'|icati0nS and information
`Automotive sound systems
`Parking systems
`Trip recorders
`Navigation. systems
`_
`Mobile radio
`_
`Board information Terminal (BIT)
`
`737
`739
`
`740
`743
`746
`748
`750
`752
`
`678
`679
`680
`684
`685
`
`694
`
`Road-vehicle systematics
`Overview
`Classification
`.
`R’A:m°(;?rr?t;g'£:;Pas3°“9°' °a'
`Body structure
`Body materials
`Body surface,
`636
`body finishing components
`688
`Safety
`692
`Ca|°”'afi°"S
`Vehicle bodies, commercial vehicles
`Commercial vehicles,
`delivery trucks and vans
`Medium and heavy-duty trucks
`695
`and tractor vehicles
`696
`Buses
`698
`Passive safety
`Noise reduction in commercial vehicles 699
`Lighting
`700
`Legal regulations
`701
`Main headlamps
`714
`Headlamp range adjustment
`715
`Fog iamps
`Auxiliary driving lamps, lights and lampS7‘l 6
`Visual signalling devices
`722
`Headlamp aiming devices
`723
`Bulbs
`724
`§g—g,';:;§ggi°:;;;:,°sd;::;g;a"“ svstegigs
`Thefbdetergent sgstems
`727
`y
`Windshield and headlamp cleaning
`Windshield-wiper systems
`730
`Fl6aT'Wlnd0W Wipe’ S)/Stems
`731
`Headlamp cleaning systems
`732
`Wgiiwgggtems
`Windshield and window glass
`Heating, ventilation,
`and aipcondmoning (HVAC)
`Heating systems using engine heat 736
`Page 5 of 23
`
`'._
`
`‘:3:
`
`5
`§j§
`2-;
`ii
`
`I
`i
`,.
`3
`l
`~
`
`7
`‘
`
`Safety systems
`Seatbelt~tightener systems
`grant aigbag systems
`l e air ag sys ems
`Rollover protection system
`Comfort and convenience systems
`Power windows
`758
`Power sunroof
`759
`Seat and steering-column adjustment 760
`Central locking system
`761
`Automotive hydraulics
`Basics
`Gear pumps and motors
`Piston pumps and motors
`Valves
`Cylinders
`Tractor hydaulics
`Hydraulic accumulators,
`auxiliary drives
`Hydrostatic fan drives
`.
`Hydrostatic drives
`Automotive pneumatics
`0007 Opeiatlon (W595)
`Radiator Iouvers
`Electrical system and power
`suppiy
`_
`Symbols
`730
`Circuit diagrams
`784
`Ef;'l?#S§;?L§Li3.°§‘J‘;;‘.’Jf§"i’l“§.evemceifii
`Controller Area Network (CAN)
`800
`Starter batteries
`803
`Battery chargers
`307
`Alternators
`303
`Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) 816
`and interierenoe suppression
`Passenger car specifications
`734 R0“ Vaflic P97553350"
`Mi5°°"a"°°"s
`Alphabets and numbers
`index of neai-iii
`
`753
`;53
`56
`757
`
`762
`763
`764
`766
`769
`770
`
`773
`774
`776
`
`773
`779
`
`822
`352
`
`862
`353
`FORD 1935
`
`FORD 1935
`
`

`
`
`
`44 Basic equations used in mechanics
`
`Basic equations used in mechanics
`See pp. 12 — 16 for names of units
`
`-«ti:-.:.lil.¢l‘
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`Mass (weight)
`Rotational ireq uency
`Power
`Linear momentum
`Radius
`Length of path
`Period, time ot one
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`:11 initial velocity
`v2 Final velocity
`um Work, energy
`Work, energy
`Angular acceleration
`wrap angle
`Coefficient of friction
`Density
`Angle of rotation
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`J
`
`rad/s2 1
`rad‘)
`
`—
`kglmfi
`
`)
`
`kg
`s-1
`W
`N - s
`m
`m
`s
`
`s
`m3
`m/s
`
`m
`n
`P
`p
`r
`s
`T
`
`2
`V
`11
`
`W
`or
`a
`p
`Q
`rp
`co
`
`mlsz
`rn/s2
`
`in
`J
`J
`J
`N
`N
`N
`m/s?
`
`m
`rn
`kg - m2
`
`N - s - m
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`svmbol
`A
`a
`ac.
`
`
`
`d
`E
`ER
`Ep
`F
`F.,.
`G
`g
`
`h
`i
`J
`
`L
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`Area
`Acceleration
`Centrlfuga|-
`acceleration
`Diameter
`Energy
`Kinetic energy
`Potential energy
`Force
`Centrifugal force
`Weight
`Acceleration of tree tall
`(g = 9,81 rn/s2, see p. 11)
`Height
`Radius of gyration
`Moment of inertia
`(second moment of
`mass)
`Angular momentum
`_Length
`Moment of force/Torque
`
`
`
`Angular velocity
`
`Relationships between quantities, numbers
`It not otherwise specified,
`the following relationships are relationships between
`quantifies, i. e. the quantities can be inserted using any units (e. g., the SI units given
`above). The unit of the quantity to be calculated is obtained from the units chosen for the
`terms of the equation.
`in some cases, additional numerical relationships are given for customary units (e. g.,
`time in s, but speed in km/h). These relationships are identified by the word “numerical
`relationship”, and are only valid if the units given for the relationship are used.
`
`Rectilinear motion
`
`
`
`Uniform rectilinear motion
`
`Distance covered after time t
`
`Velocity
`v = s/t
`
`Unltorm rectilinear acceleration
`
`Mean velocity
`vm = (v1 + v2)/2
`
`Acceleration
`4 = (v2 - vi)/t = (v? — vi" )/(25)
`
`Numerical relationship:
`a = (v2 - no/(3.6 r)
`,
`a in rn/s2, v2 and ‘min km/h, tin s
`
`s=vé,,-rain -t+(a-12)/2
`
`= (112 — v1 )/(2a)
`
`Final velocity
`‘U2 = u, + a - := \/1?+—2a‘-s‘
`
`lnitial velocity
`
`'u1=vg—a-t= Vv§—2a-s
`
`For unitonnly retarded motion (‘U2 smaller
`than 111) a is negative.
`_
`,
`For acceleration from rest, substitute
`v1 = 0 For retardation to rest, substitute
`'u2=O.
`
`1) The unit rad (= m/m) can be replaced by the
`number 1.
`
`Page 6 of 23
`
`FORD 1935,
`
`FORD 1935
`
`

`
`Basic equations used in mechanics
`
`
`
`Force
`F= m ' a
`
`Centrifugal acceleration
`ad = ,. “,2
`
`Work,energy
`W=F-s=rn-a-s=P-t
`
`Moment of force/Torque
`M = F - r = P/a)
`
`Potential energy
`Ep=G-h=m~g-h
`
`Numerical relationship:
`M = 9550 - P/n
`MinN-m.PinkW,ninmin-‘
`
`ifinetic energy
`Ekz m '
`
`Moment of inertia (see p. 48)
`I = m r 1?
`
`Power
`P = W/r= F - ‘U
`
`Work
`
`W=M-¢p=P-r
`
`Liitingpower
`P=m.g.v
`
`Linear momentum
`P = m ' ‘U
`
`Rotary motion
`
`Uniform rotary motion
`
`Peripheral velocity
`u: r ' (1)
`
`Numerical relationship:
`11 = :r- d -n/60
`v in m/s. d in rn, n in min-1
`1} = 6 ' it ' d '
`00
`v in km/h, din m, n in min-1
`
`Angular velocity
`(u: qy/t=v/r=2:r-n
`Numerical relationship:
`(0 = It ' 71/30
`at in s-‘, n in min—‘
`
`Unlform angular acceleration
`Angular acceleration
`a = (602 - w1)/t-
`
`Numerical relationship
`or = J12 (I12 — n1)l(30t)
`a in 1/s2, n1 and ng in mln-1, r in s
`
`Final angular velocity
`
`(02 = an + a - r
`
`Initial angular velocity
`(01 = (02 - a ' t
`
`For uniformly retarded rotary motion
`
`((1); is smaller than an) a is negative.
`
`Centrifugal force
`
`Fcf=m-r' a22=rn-‘U2/r
`
`Power
`P = M - on = M - 2.:rr- 71
`
`Numerical relationship:
`P = M - n/9550
`
`(see graph, p. 50)
`PinkW,MinN-m(=W-s),
`n in min*1
`
`Energy of rotation
`E,.,.=J- co2I2=J-21:2-n2
`Numerical relationship:
`E... = J - n2/182.4
`E,.,.inJ(=N-m),Jinkg-m2,
`n in min-1
`
`Angular momentum
`L=J- a)=J-2.11:-n
`
`Numerical relationship:
`L=J-rr-n/30=0.1047J-n
`
`Lin N rs-m,Jin kg-m2,ninmin-1
`
`Pendulum motion
`
`(Mathematical pendulum, i e. a point-size
`mass suspended from a thread of zero mass)
`
`Plane pendulum
`Period of oscillation (time for one com-
`plete swing back and forth)
`
`T: 21: - Vl/g
`The above equation is only accurate for
`small excursions a from the rest position (for
`a = 10°, the error is approximately 0.2 %).
`
`Conical pendulum
`‘lime for one revolution:
`
`F, = m ' g/cos a
`
`T: 2:r-V
`Centrifugal force
`Fcq = m - g - tan (1
`Force pulling on thread
`
`cf
`
`Page 7 of 23
`
`FORD 1935
`
`FORD 1935
`
`

`
`46 Basic equations used in mechanics
`
`
`Throwing and falling
`
`(See p. 44 for equation symbols)
`
`Body thrown vertically upward Upward velocity
`(neglecting air resistance).
`Uniform retardation.
`Heigm "mched
`Fletardation:
`Time of upward travel
`a = g = 9.81 mls?
`
`At highest point
`
`23 ' h
`v = U‘ _ 8 ' t = 1" —
`h = ”‘ ' ' ' 0'53
`r= 1" " U
`=
`1
`g
`3
`2
`g
`1); = 0;
`kg = 51 ;
`:2 = 31
`8
`3
`
`B°dV "'.'°“".' °b'iq"°'V "pwam Range of throw (maxi-
`(neglecting air resistance).
`mum value at a = 45°)
`Angle of throw a; ; superposition
`of uniform rectilinear motion
`DU"3“°" 07 "WOW
`and free fall
`
`Height of throw
`
`s = '—’E—iiE-9
`
`t=
`
`‘"2 °°S “
`h = 312%’
`2:
`
`-
`_
`= -2-1’-‘—s—"‘—‘1‘
`3
`
`F
`f ll
`(nrgglegting air resistance).
`Uniform acceleration;
`acceleration:
`a=g=9.a1m/s2
`
`Fa" Wm‘ °"°""°"'°° °‘ ‘’i''
`resistance
`Non~uniform acceleration;
`initial acceleration:
`a1 = g = 9.81 m/82. flnal
`acceleration a2 = 0
`
`Energyotthrow
`
`E=G'h=m'g'h
`
`.
`V°'°°'tV °i fa"
`
`Height of fall
`
`Timeotfall
`
`U = 3 ' ’ = V 28 ' h
`_
`_ [2
`V2
`h = '5-— = — = 3-5
`2
`2:
`2
`t=—2§= §=\/.258
`
`The velocity of fall approaches a limiting velocity no at which
`the air '°S'Sta"°°
`_
`_
`FL = 9 ‘ Cw ' A ‘ U5/2 15 35 Qieat 35 “'9 Weight
`G = m ' g of the failing body, thus:
`Limiting velocity
`'uo= 2m'g/Q - cw -A
`(Q air density, c.. coefficient of
`drag.
`
`Velocity of fall
`
`Height of fall
`
`Time of fall
`
`A cross-sectional area of the body).
`1.: = uo '
`1 — 1/942
`The following abbreviated term is
`substituted:
`
`2: = ec"’"3; e = 2.718
`2
`2
`39in
`”°
`:23
`1:3-v2
`
`In
`
`t: E in (x+\/x2— 1)
`8
`
`.._._._...--__..______._
`
`Example: A heavy body (mass m = 1000 kg, cross-sectional area A = 1 m2, coefficient of drag
`cw = 0.9) falls from a great height. The air density 9 = 1293 kg/m3 and the acceleration of free fall
`g = 9.81 mls? are assumed to be the same over the entire range as at ground level.
`
`
`
`Neglecting air resistance, values at
`Allowing for air resistance, values at
`end of fall from indicated height would be
`end of tall from indicated height are
`
`Time of fall
`Velocity of
`Energy
`Time of fall
`Velocity of
`Energy
`s
`fail mls
`3
`fall mls
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`Page 8 of 23
`
`FORD 1995
`
`FORD 1935
`
`

`
`Basic equations used in mechanics
`
`Drag coefficients cw
`
`
`
`__|
`
`__
`
`Disc,
`
`plate
`
`Open dish,
`parachute
`
`Sphere
`
`
`Long cylinder
`Re < 200 000
`1.0
`Re > 450 000
`0.35
`
`
`——Q Re < 200 000
`Re - 500 000
`
`_“
`Re > 250 000
`Re -- 200 000
`Slender
`
`rotating body
`''
`
`I : d = 6
`
`
`Long plate
`l : d = 30
`
`0.78
`0.66
`
`0.2
`
`Reynolds number
`
`Re = (U + U0) - I/V
`
`u Velocity of body in m/s,
`vo Velocity of air in m/s,
`1
`Length of body in m
`(in direction of flow),
`at Thickness of body in m,
`v Kinematic viscosity in m2/s.
`
`Discharge of air from nozzles
`
`The curves below only give approximate
`values. In addition to pressure and nozzle
`cross section,
`the air discharge rate
`depends upon the surface and length
`of the nozzle bore, the supply line and
`the rounding of the edges of the dis-
`charge port.
`
`For air with v = 14 - 10-5 m2/s (annual
`mean 200 m above sea level
`
`Re ~72, 000(v+vo) - Iwith vand vo in m/S
`Re~20,000 (v+vo) -lwithvand vain krn/h
`The results of flow measurements on
`
`two geometrically similar bodies of dif-
`ferent sizes are comparable only if the
`Reynolds number is of equal magnitude
`in both cases (this is important in tests
`on models).
`
`
`
`Gravitation
`
`Lever law
`
`Force of attraction between two masses:
`
`F =f ("I1 - me)/T2
`r Distance between centers of mass
`
`F1-r1=F2-r2
`
`f Gravitation constant
`= 6.67 - 10-“ N - m2/kg?
`
`iiéage 9 of 23
`
`FORD 1935‘
`
`FORD 1935
`
`

`
`Electric machines
`1
`
`
`
`
`Series-wound machine
`
`
`
`Shunt-wound machineRotationalspeedRotationalspeed
`
`
`
`
`
`Motor with permanent-magnet exltatlon
`
`Series connection
`(series characteristic)
`Rotational speed is highly dependent
`upon load; high starting torque; “racing”
`of the machine if the load is suddenly
`removed, therefore load must be rigidly
`coupled; direction of rotation changed by
`reversing the direction of current in the
`armature or field winding; used, among
`other things, as motor vehicle drive motor
`and_starter motor for intemal-combustion
`engines.
`
`Electric machines
`
`Principal of operation
`
`Electric machines are used to convert
`electrical and mechanical energy. An
`electric motor converts electrical energy
`inro mechanical energy: a generator con-
`verts energy in the opposite direction.
`Electric machines consist of a stationary
`component (the stator) and a rotating
`component (the rotor). There are special
`designs which depart from this configura-
`tion such as linear machines which pro-
`duce linear motion. Permanent magnets
`or several coils (windings) are used to
`produce magnetic fields in the stator and
`rotor which cause torque to develop bet-
`ween these two machine components.
`Electric machines have iron stators and
`
`rotors in order to control the magnetic
`fields. Because the magnetic fluxes
`change over time, stators and rotors must
`consist of stacks of individual laminations
`
`which are insulated with respect to one
`another. The spatial arrangement of the
`coils and the type of current used (direct
`current,
`alternating current or
`three-
`phase current) permit a number of diffe-
`rent electric machine designs. They differ
`from one another in the way they operate,
`and therefore have different applica-
`tions.
`
`Direct-current machines
`
`The stator of a direct-current machine
`
`contains salient poles which are magne-
`tized by the direct-current field windings.
`in the rotor (here also called the arma-
`ture), the coils are distributed among slots
`in the laminated stack and connected to a
`commutator. Carbon brushes in the stator
`
`frame wipe against the commutator as it
`rotates, thereby transierring direct current
`to the armature coils. The rotation of the
`commutator causes a reversal
`in the
`direction of current flow in the cells. The
`
`different ways in which the field winding
`and armature can be connected result
`
`in different rotational speed vs.
`characteristics:
`
`torque
`
`I.
`
`%i
`
`t
`35'
`itg.
`3
`
`.2
`
`‘r
`
`‘
`
`Page 10 of 23
`
`FORD 1935
`
`FORD 1935
`
`

`
`
`
`..
`,i
`';.
`I.i
`
`Electric machines
`
` Three-phase asynchronous motor with
`squirrel-cage rotor
`Delta-connected
`Star-connected
`
`stator winding stator winding
`
`
`
`
`@
`
`bar winding. The three-phase winding is
`connected to slip rings which are short-
`circuited either directly or via external re-
`sistances. In the case of the bar winding,
`the bars are connected to one another by
`two short-circuiting rings (squirrel-cage
`rotor). As long as the rotational speed
`of the rotor deviates from no, the rotating
`stator field induces current in-the rotor
`
`thereby generating torque.
`windings,
`Deviation of the rotational speed of the
`rotor n from no is termed slip s:
`
`S=(no~n)/no
`
`Continuous operation is only economi-
`cal in the vicinity of no, because losses
`increase as slip increases (nominal slip
`s 5%).
`in this range the asynchronous
`machine has a shunt characteristic. The
`
`machine operates as a motor when n < no,
`and as a generator when n > no. The di-
`rection of rotation is changed by reversing
`two of the phases.
`The asynchronous machine is the most
`frequently used electric motor in the field
`of drive engineering. With a squirrel-cage
`rotor it is easy to operate, and requires
`little maintenance.
`
`les of rotatin field s eeds
`
`1 p
`
`arallel (shunt) connection
`(shunt characteristic)
`.7. gotational speed remains largely con-
`" giant regardless of load; direction of rota-
`tion is changed by reversing the direction
`of the current in the armature or field win-
`- ding; used for instance, as drive motor for
`machine tools and as direct-current gene-
`rator. A shunt characteristic can also be
`obtained by using a separate power sup-
`piy for the field winding (separate excita-
`tion) or by using permanent—magnet poles
`in the stator. Used for motors with perma-
`nent-magnet excitation in the motor-vehicle
`starter motors, windshield wiper motors
`and fractional horsepower motors for
`various drives.
`If the motor incorporates
`both series and parallel field windings
`(compound-wound motor),
`intermediate
`levels in the rotational speed vs. torque
`characteristic can be obtained; applica-
`tions: large starter motors for instance.
`All direct-current machines are easily
`capable of speed control over a wide
`range. If the machine incorporates a sta-
`tic converter which allows adjustment
`of the armature voltage, the torque and
`therefore the rotational speed are infini-
`tely variable. The rotational speed can be
`further increased by reducing the field
`current (field weakening) when the rated
`armature voltage is reached. A disadvan-
`tage of direct-current machines is carbon
`bmsh and commutator wear which makes
`regular maintenance necessary.
`
`Three-phase machines
`
`A three-phase winding is distributed
`among the stator slots in a three-phase
`machine. The three phases of current
`produce a magnetic field which rotates
`(rotating field). The speed no (in min-1) of
`the rotating field is calculated as follows:
`
`no=50'f/P
`
`1‘: frequency (in Hz), p = number of pole
`pairs.
`Three-phase machines are either syn-
`chronous or asynchronous, depending
`upon rotor design.
`
`Asynchronous machines
`The laminated rotor contains either a
`_ three-phase winding, as in the stator, or a
`
`
`
`
`
`Frequency
`I 150 Hz
`poles (2p) 50 Hz
`
`Rotating tield speed in min-1
`
`
`| 200 Hz
`
`
`
`_;_a.MOGOS-BM
`
`Page 11 of 23
`
`. .'”'~
`
`FORD1935 I
`
`FORD 1935
`
`

`
`132
`Electric machines
`
`
` Star-connected three-phase synchronous
`
`generator
`slip-ring rotor with field winding.
`
`
`
`EC Motor
`
`1 Electric machine with rotor-position sensor,
`
`2 Control and power electronics, 3 Input.
`
`they would be in a classical direct-current
`machine.
`
`The EC motor’s potential applications
`are a result of the advantages which this
`drive principle provides: Commutator and
`carbon bmshes are replaced by elec-
`tronic circuitry, dispensing with both brush
`noise and wear. EC motors are mainten-
`ance-free (long service life) and can be
`constructed to meet high degrees of pro-
`tection (s. below). The electronic control
`feature makes it easy for drive units with
`EC motors to incorporate auxiliary func-
`tions such as infinitely-variable speed
`adjustment, direction reversal, gradual
`starts and lock-up protection.
`The main areas of automotive applica-
`tion are for climate control and ventilation,
`pumps and servo units. In the area of pro-
`duction machinery, EC motors are chiefly
`employed as precision drive units for
`feed-control in machine tools. Here the
`decisive advantages are freedom from
`maintenance,
`favorable dynamic pro-
`perties and consistent torque output with
`minimal ripple.
`
`.
`
`Sychronous machines
`In the rotor (here also called the inductor),
`the poles are magnetized by direct-current
`coils. The magnetizing current is usually
`transferred via two slip rings to the rotor.
`The inductor can be made of solid steel,
`because the magnetic flux remains con-
`stant over time.
`
`Constant torque is generated as long
`as the rotor rotates at a speed of no. At
`other speeds, the torque fluctuates peri-
`odically between a positive and a nega-
`tive maximum value, and excessively
`high current is produced.
`For this reason, a synchronous ma-
`chine is not self—starting. The synchro-
`nous machine also differs from the asyn-
`chronous machine in that the reactive
`
`power absorption and generation are
`adjustable. The synchronous machine is
`most frequently used as a generator in
`electric power plants. Synchronous mo-
`tors are used in cases where constant
`
`motor speed based on constant line tre-
`quency is desired, or where a reactive
`power demand exists. The motor vehicle
`three-phase altemator is a special type oi
`synchronous machine.
`The rotational speed of all three-phase
`machines is determined by the stator
`frequency. Such machines can operate
`over a wide range of speeds if used in
`conjunction with static converters which
`vary the frequency.
`
`EC Motors
`
`The “electronically-commutated direct-
`current” or “EC” motor is becoming in-
`creasingly popular. it is essentially a per-
`manently-excited synchronous machine,
`and thus dispenses with a slip ring. The
`EC motor is equipped with a rotor-position
`sensor, and is connected to the DC power
`source through its control and power
`electronics. The electronic transfer circuit
`
`switches the current in the stator winding
`according to rotor position — the magnets
`which induce the excitation current are
`
`attached to the rotor— to provide the inter-
`dependence between rotational speed
`and torque which is normally associated
`with an externally-excited DC unit. The
`respective magnetic functions of
`the
`stator and rotor are the opposite of what
`
`Page 12 Of 23
`
`FORD; 1935
`
`FORD 1935
`
`

`
`Electric machines
`
`Two-value capacitor motor
`
`
`
`Duty—type ratings for electric
`machines
`
`(VDE 0530)
`
`I.
`
`i'
`
`.
`
`S 1: Continuous-running duty
`Operation under constant load (rated out-
`put) ot sufficient duration for thermal equi-
`librium to be reached.
`
`8 2: Short-time duty
`Operation under constant load is so brief
`that thermal equilibrium is not reached.
`The rest period is so long that
`the
`machine is able to cool down to the tem-
`
`perature of the coolant.
`Recommended short-time duty periods:
`10, 30, 60 and 90 min.
`
`Single-phase alternating-
`current machines
`
`Universal motors
`The direct-current series-wound motor
`can be operated on aitemating current ii a
`laminated rather than a solid iron stator is
`used. It is then called a universal motor.
`When operated on alternating current,
`a torque component at
`twice the fre-
`quency of the current is superposed on
`the constant torque component.
`
`Single-phase asynchronous motors
`with squirrel-cage rotor
`The simplest design of a single-phase
`asynchronous motor
`is a three—phase
`asynchronous machine in which altema-
`ting current is supplied to only two stator
`phases. Although its operation remains
`largely the same,
`the power and the
`maximum torque are reduced. In addition,
`the single-phase asynchronous machine
`is not self-starting.
`Machines which are intended only for
`single-phase operation have only a single
`phase main winding in the stator, as well
`as auxiliary starting circuits. The stator
`also contains an auxiliary winding con-
`nected in parallel with the main winding
`for this purpose. The necessary phase
`shift of the auxiliary winding current can
`be achieved through increased winding
`resistance (low breakaway torque) or by
`means of a capacitor connected in
`series with the auxiliary winding (some-
`what greater starting torque).
`The auxiliary winding is switched off
`after the motor starts. The direction of
`rotation of the motor is changed by rever-
`sing the two auxiliary or main winding
`connections. A motor which has a capa-
`citor in series with the auxiliary winding
`is called a capacitor motor. Capacitor
`motors with a starting and running capa-
`}}' citor also operate continuously with capa-
`citor and auxiliary winding. Optimum ope-
`ration is achieved by correctly choosing
`the capacitor for a specific working point.
`An additional capacitor is often used in
`order to increase the starting torque; this
`capacitor is then disconnected after the
`motor starts.
`
`=
`
`2
`
`;
`
`.
`
`Page 13 of 23
`
`
`
`8 3 to S 5: intermittent duty
`Continuous alternating sequence of load
`and idle periods. Thermal equilibrium is
`not reached during the load period or du-
`ring the cooling period of one duty cycle.
`8 3 lnterrnittent duty without influence
`of starting on temperature.
`S4 intermittent ciuty with influence of
`starting on temperature.
`S5 lnterrnittent duty with influence of
`starting and braking on temperature.
`'
`
`S 6: Continuous operation with inter-
`mittent loading
`Operation with intermittent loading. Conti-
`nuous aiternating sequence oi load peri-
`ods and no-load periods, otherwise as
`S 3.
`
`S 7: Uninterrupted duty
`Operation with starting and braking.
`
`
`
`FORD 1935
`
`

`
`134
`Electric machines
`
`
`8 8: Uninterrupted duty
`Operation with pole changing.
`For S 3 and S 6, the duty cycle time
`is 10 min unless otherwise agreed; re-
`commended values for cyclic duration
`factor: 15, 25, 40 and 60%. For S 2,
`3
`and S 6, the operating time or cycle time
`and the cyclic duration factor are to be
`specified following the rating. _The_ duty
`cycle time is only to be specified if lt.lS
`other than 10 min. Example: 8 2-60 min,
`8 3-25%.
`
`_
`Cyclic duration factor
`The cyclic duration factor is the ratio of
`the loading period including starting and
`braking to the cycle time.
`
`Winding temperature
`The mean temperature t2 of the windings
`of an electric machine can be determined
`by measuring the resistance (R2) and
`referring it to an initial temperature R1 at
`a temperature ti:
`
`:2: E2:_& (1:+t1)+t1,
`
`where
`
`1:=1—20K
`or
`
`a —_- Temperature coefficient.
`
`Degrees of protection of
`electric machines
`
`(DIN 40 050)
`
`Examples:
`
`Degree of protection IP 00
`No protection against accidental contact,
`no protection against solid bodies, no
`protection against water.
`--- -
`
`Degree of protection [P 11
`Protection against large-area contact by
`the hand, protection against large solid
`bodies, protection against dripping water,
`
`Degree of protection IP 23
`Protection against contact by the tingers_
`protection against medium-size
`solid
`bodies, protection against water sprayed
`vertically and obliquely up to an angle
`of 60° to the vertical.
`
`Degree of protection IP 44
`Protection against contact by tools or the
`like, protection against small solid bodies,
`protection against splash water from all
`directions.
`
`Degree of protection IP 67
`Total protection against contact, dust-
`proof.
`Protection
`against
`entry
`of
`dangerous quantities of water when
`immersed in water under conditions of
`defined pressure and for a defined period
`of time.
`
`"
`
`Explosion protection Ex
`(\IDE 0170/0171 )
`Symbol d: flameproof enclosure;
`Symbol f:
`forced ventilation;
`Symbols:
`increased safety;
`Symbol s: special protection, e.g.,
`for machines operating in
`flammable liquids.
`
`'.
`I
`S
`'i;.i
`‘Iii
`
`
`
`' Page 14 of 23
`I‘
`
`FORD i1935
`
`FORD 1935
`
`

`
`-
`
`Moro: vehicle dynamics
`
`Motor vehicle dynamics
`
`Dynamics of linear motion
`
` T
`
`.
`
`Dynamic male on St’!
`
`3323‘.9.23'
`
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